IngredientsScientific name and classification: Antrodia camphorata is a wood-rot basidiomycete in the family Fomitopsidaceae, and is a unique perennial mushroom endemic to Taiwan, China. The fungus has undergone taxonomic revision: it has been officially renamed Taiwanofungus camphoratus in Taiwan. An earlier synonym, frequently encountered in scientific literature, is Antrodia cinnamomea. The formal combination Antrodia camphorata was established by Wu, Ryvarden, and Chang, as reported in the Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica in 1997.
Common names: It is also known as camphor mushroom, God mushroom, and other local designations. In Taiwan it is known as "niu-chang-chih" or "niu-chang-ku." It is also referred to as the "forest ruby."
Natural host and habitat: Antrodia camphorata is an expensive mushroom that grows on the inner cavity of an endangered native tree of Taiwan, namely Cinnamomum kanehirae Hayata (Lauraceae). It grows exclusively inside the trunks of this single tree species, found only in the mountain forests of Taiwan at elevations between 450 and 2,000 meters. The surface of its fruiting body is reddish brown, light brown, or orange yellow. It can appear plate-shaped, bell-shaped, horseshoe-shaped, or tower-shaped, with its color ranging from bright red when young to light reddish-brown or yellowish-brown as it matures, earning it the moniker "Ruby in the Forest." It also possesses a noticeably bitter taste.
Rarity and economic value: Wild A. camphorata grows very slowly in nature, and it generally takes 1–3 years before it can be picked. This strict dependency on one host tree made it one of the rarest and most expensive mushrooms in the world: before cultivation became possible, wild specimens sold for up to $15,000 per kilogram. Demand was so intense that the Taiwanese government placed the camphor laurel under state protection.
To replace the wild-collected material, commercial cultivation of A. camphorata has been developed using a variety of techniques to produce either cultivated fruiting body, pure mycelium (grown by liquid fermentation), or mycelial biomass (mycelium and residual substrate). Levels of triterpenes are highest in the fruiting body products, which are also the most expensive, and lowest in the mycelial biomass products, with liquid fermentation mycelial products offering a cost-effective intermediate option.
Antrodia camphorata is available in various forms, including extracts, powders, and capsules. It is also incorporated into certain food products, beverages, teas, or wines in Taiwan. Due to its rarity in the wild, cultivated forms, such as mycelia produced through liquid fermentation or solid-state cultivation, are increasingly common and offer a more sustainable supply.
The three principal cultivation methods each yield distinct chemical profiles:
Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) delivered an opinion on freeze-dried mycelia of Antrodia camphorata as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. The novel food is produced by solid-state cultivation from tissue cultures derived from the fungus. The applicant intended to market it in food supplements at a maximum dose of 990 mg per day.
The medicinal history of A. camphorata in Taiwan can be traced back 200–300 years ago, but it has only received widespread public attention for approximately 20 years. Antrodia cinnamomea (syn. Antrodia camphorata) is an edible fungus that aborigines traditionally used as folk medicine in the early years after they found it effective in ameliorating hangovers, food intoxication, diarrhea, abdominal pain, fatigue, and enhancing immunity. It is believed that in 1773, Wu Sha, the famous pioneer in the Yilan area in northeastern Taiwan, was the first person of Han descent to trade with aboriginals to obtain the fungus.
Taiwanese aborigines used this species to treat liver diseases and food and drug intoxication. The fruiting bodies of Niuchangchih (Antrodia camphorata) are also used as Chinese folk medicine for the treatment of liver diseases, food and drug intoxication, diarrhea, abdominal pain, hypertension, itchy skin, and tumorigenic diseases. It had been popularly used as a folkloric medicine long before 1773 for the treatment of twisted tendons and muscle damage, terrified mental state, influenza, cold, headache, and fever.
Being a local species, Niuchangchih was historically only used in Taiwan by the aborigines as a traditional prescription for the discomforts caused by alcohol drinking or exhaustion. The mushroom held high cultural status: due to the scarcity of this fungus and its miraculous health effects, it is regarded as a present from Heaven for Taiwanese and a national treasure of Taiwan.
Over 78 compounds consisting of terpenoids, benzenoids, lignans, benzoquinone derivatives, succinic and maleic derivatives, in addition to polysaccharides have been identified. Since 1995, a total of 162 terpenoids including triterpenoids, meroterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, and steroids have been characterized.
Triterpenoids are the most studied component among the numerous compositions of Antrodia camphorata. They are natural compounds containing 30 carbon atoms with pentacyclic or hexacyclic structures. The ergostane-type triterpenoids (antcins) and meroterpenoids (antroquinonols) are characteristic constituents of A. camphorata. A. camphorata contains triterpenes, diterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and other terpenoids.
The terpenoids show anti-cancer, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and neuroprotective activities.
Antroquinonol is a tetrahydro ubiquinone derivative found predominantly in the mycelium of Antrodia camphorata, and is characterized by numerous biological and pharmacological activities. To date, 7 kinds of antroquinonol and related compounds including antroquinonol, antroquinonol B, C, D, L, and M, and 4-acetyantroquinonol B have been identified in Antrodia camphorata.
The novel food mainly consists of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and it contains numerous constituents, such as β-glucans, antroquinonol, and triterpenoids. Polysaccharides are responsible for a significant portion of the immunomodulatory activity attributed to the fungus.
The compounds identified in Niuchangchih (Antrodia camphorata) are predominantly polysaccharides, triterpenoids, steroids, benzenoids and maleic/succinic acid derivatives. It is also rich in numerous nutrients including adenosine, vitamins (such as vitamin B, nicotinic acid), proteins (immunoglobulins), superoxide dismutase (SOD), trace elements (such as calcium, phosphorus, and germanium), nucleic acids, and steroids.
Antrodia Camphorata Polysaccharide (ACP) suppresses LPS-induced Kupffer cell activation, reduces the expression of inflammatory factors, increases SOD levels, and suppresses ROS expression. Research indicated that ACP exerts its effect through suppressing reactive oxygen species (ROS), and further detection revealed that ACP activates the Nrf2 signal pathway. In vitro and in vivo experiments revealed that antroquinonol, a bioactive component of Antrodia camphorata, exerted significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities via regulating nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2).
A. camphorata has been found to exhibit a broad range of pharmacological effects, which include anti-microbial, anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-aging, anti-carcinogenic, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and immunomodulatory effects. Bioactive triterpenoids like antcin A inhibit hepatic inflammation through NLRP3 inflammasome suppression and MAPK3-NF-κB pathway modulation. 4-Acetylantroquinonol B was the most potent compound in one study against poly I:C-induced NO production in RAW 264.7 cells, with an IC50 value of 0.57 ± 0.06 μM.
Triterpenoid compounds and antroquinonol have demonstrated the ability to inhibit tumour progression by inducing apoptosis, triggering autophagy, and modulating vital cell signalling pathways. A previous study demonstrated that antroquinonol displayed anticancer activity against hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines through activation of 5′ adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase and inhibition of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. Further study demonstrated that antroquinonol exhibits anticancer activity in human pancreatic cancers through inhibition of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, which in turn downregulates the expression of cell cycle regulators. Evidence suggests that antroquinonol plays a role in the inhibition of Ras and Ras-related small GTP-binding protein functions through the inhibition of protein isoprenyl transferase activity in cancer cells. Using cell line-based assays, inactive forms of Ras and Rho proteins were found significantly elevated after treatment with antroquinonol. Antroquinonol binds directly to farnesyltransferase and geranylgeranyltransferase-I, which are key enzymes involved in the activation of Ras-related proteins, and inhibits enzyme activity in vitro.
The fungus demonstrates hepatoprotective effects via polysaccharide-mediated Nrf2 activation and TLR4-NF-κB pathway inhibition. The anti-fibrotic effect of antrodin C was investigated in CFSC-8B cells (hepatic stellate cells) stimulated by TGF-β1 or PDGF-BB in vitro. Antrodin C (50 μM) inhibited TGF-β1 or PDGF-BB stimulated CFSC-8B cell activation, migration, and extracellular matrix (ECM) accumulation.
The ethanolic extract of A. camphorata increased glucose-induced insulin secretion dose-dependently through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) pathway, and upregulated genes involved in insulin secretion, including PPAR-γ, glucose transporter-2, and glucokinase. In C2C12 myotube cells, the membrane GLUT4 and phospho-Akt expressions were higher in insulin- and antcin K-treated groups than in the control group.
Overview: The fruiting bodies and fermented products of Niuchangchih have been reported to exhibit activity when treating liver diseases, such as preventing ethanol-, CCl4- and cytokine-induced liver injury, inhibiting the hepatitis B virus, ameliorating fatty liver and liver fibrosis, and inhibiting liver cancer cells.
Preclinical evidence: In animal experiments both the fruiting body and mycelium have been shown to protect against alcohol-induced hepatitis and liver steatosis (fatty liver), as well as CCl4- and cytokine-induced liver damage, ameliorating increases in AST, ALT, and ALP levels and histopathological changes in a dose-dependent manner with no observed lesions. Fruiting bodies also inhibited alcohol-induced rises in cholesterol, hepatic lipids, and liver enzymes in rats with moderate effect at a dose of 0.025 g/kg and increased efficacy at a dose of 0.1 g/kg. Spore powder of A. camphorata at 100 mg/kg/day or 200 mg/kg/day on CCl4-induced liver fibrosis in mice showed SP groups reduced serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities compared with the CCl4 group. SP also showed a decrease in hydroxyproline content in liver tissues.
Human/clinical evidence: The protective effects of Golden-Antrodia camphorata on liver function had not been fully investigated in human clinical studies prior to 2022. One study aimed to evaluate the beneficial effects of Golden-Antrodia camphorata on hepatic function after alcohol consumption in human subjects. A total of 80 participants with increased γ-glutamyl transferase levels (60–180 U/L) were enrolled and randomly divided into two groups. Participants in the first group were orally administered 300 mg/day Golden-Antrodia camphorata tablets, while those in the second group received placebo tablets for 12 weeks. Biochemical routine blood tests were performed at 6 and 12 weeks following the first administration. Treating patients with alcoholic liver diseases with Golden-Antrodia camphorata for 12 weeks declined serum ALT and AST levels.
A separate preclinical study published in 2024 found that in a GLP facility, the efficacy of A. camphorata mycelia on alcohol-induced liver damage was investigated both in vitro and in vivo. Experimental groups included a normal control group, a negative control group, and mycelium powder administration groups at 50 mg/kg/day, 100 mg/kg/day, and 200 mg/kg/day, alongside a positive control silymarin 200 mg/kg/day group, with 10 Sprague Dawley rats per group. Based on the results, the authors concluded that repeated oral administration of A. camphorata mycelium powder is effective in improving alcoholic liver disease.
Evidence strength for hepatoprotection: Substantial preclinical evidence from multiple independent rodent studies exists. There is one published randomized controlled trial in humans (n=80, 12-week duration) showing reductions in liver enzyme markers. The human evidence base is currently limited in scope and scale, and independent replication is needed before firm clinical conclusions can be drawn.
Scope of preclinical activity: The mushroom exhibits anticancer activity toward a large variety of cancers including breast, cervical, ovarian, prostate, bladder, colorectal, pancreatic, liver, and lung cancers; melanoma; leukemia; lymphoma; neuroblastoma; and glioblastoma in preclinical (cell-based and animal) models. The alcohol extract of Antrodia camphorata has been found to exert anticancer effects through inhibiting tumor cell DNA synthesis, promoting apoptosis and exerting an antimigration effect.
Antroquinonol — clinical development: The fungal-derived Taiwanese natural product antroquinonol A has attracted both academic and commercial interest due to its reported exciting biological properties. This reduced quinone was in Phase II trials (USA and Taiwan) for the treatment of non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) and was recently granted orphan drug status by the FDA for the treatment of pancreatic cancer and acute myeloid leukemia. Pending successful completion of human clinical trials, antroquinonol is expected to be commercialized under the trade name Hocena.
Phase I clinical trial: A multicenter Phase I study of antroquinonol was conducted in patients with metastatic NSCLC who had received at least two prior systemic treatment regimens including one platinum-based chemotherapy regimen. Antroquinonol at all dose levels, administered daily for 4 weeks, was generally safe and well tolerated, without dose-limiting toxicities. The recommended dose level for a Phase II study was determined to be ≥600 mg daily.
Ongoing clinical investigation: Among the bioactive entities, clinical trials of antroquinonol and 4-acetyl antroquinonol B are being carried out for treating cancer, hypercholesterolemia, and hyperlipidemia. A Phase II clinical trial has been ongoing in the US and Taiwan to treat lung cancer patients with antroquinonol.
Evidence strength for anticancer use: Preclinical evidence (in vitro and animal) is extensive. Antroquinonol has progressed to Phase I and Phase II human clinical trials. However, as of current available data, definitive efficacy in human cancer endpoints has not been established. One ACS Central Science report noted that "a synthesis-enabled biological re-examination of this promising natural product reveals minimal in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity in preclinical models" when re-evaluated with synthetic material, highlighting ongoing scientific debate about the magnitude of antroquinonol's antitumor activity. The anticancer application remains investigational and should not be characterized as proven in humans.
Antrodia camphorata is commonly used to treat abdominal pain, diarrhoea, drug intoxication, hypertension, itchy skin, and liver cancer. For both in vitro and in vivo models, the partially purified polysaccharide from A. camphorata was found to have anti-tumour effects. In addition, polysaccharides extracted from A. camphorata exhibited anti-hepatitis B virus activity and also inhibit lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in mouse macrophages.
In a mouse model of allergic asthma, polysaccharide fractions were studied: treatment with the GF2 polysaccharide fraction significantly increased high levels of IL-10 and low levels of interferon-γ produced by T cells. These data indicate that administration of A. camphorata polysaccharides may have therapeutic potential when used as an adjuvant for the immunomodulatory treatment of allergic asthma.
Research suggests that Antrodia camphorata may influence immune responses, acting as an immunomodulator. Its compounds are capable of either upregulating or downregulating specific aspects of the host's immune system. This potential makes it a subject of ongoing investigation for its role in supporting overall immune function.
Evidence strength: Immunomodulatory effects are documented in multiple in vitro and animal studies. No large, well-controlled human clinical trials in immunology-specific endpoints have been identified in the available literature. Evidence is preliminary.
The fruiting bodies of A. camphorata are enriched with triterpenoids that possess numerous biological activities, including immune-enhancing responses, fatigue-recovering effects, hepatoprotective effects, antioxidant, anti-inflammation, and anticancer properties. The NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways have been identified as mechanistic targets in cell-based studies. Evidence at this level is robust for certain isolated compounds but human clinical trials specifically targeting inflammatory conditions have not been identified in the searched literature. Evidence remains preclinical.
The main constituent of the fruiting body of A. camphorata, antcin K (AnK), was screened for potential antidiabetic effects in vitro and further evaluated in high-fat-diet-(HFD-)induced mice. Following 8-week HFD-induction, mice were treated with AnK, fenofibrate, metformin, or vehicle for 4 weeks. AnK-treated mice significantly lowered blood glucose, triglyceride, total cholesterol, and leptin levels. AnK at 40 mg/kg/day displayed both an antihyperglycemic effect comparable to metformin (300 mg/kg/day) and an antihypertriglyceridemic effect comparable to fenofibrate (250 mg/kg/day).
A previous study demonstrated that the aqueous extract of A. camphorata exhibited hypolipidemic activity and reduced plasma triglyceride levels in hypercholesterolemic rats. Other studies also showed that A. camphorata ameliorated hepatic steatosis, hyperlipidemia and metabolic syndrome in high-fat-diet mice.
A human pilot study on cholesterol was conducted: Antrodia cinnamomea (syn. Antrodia camphorata) has become a popular health food because of its liver protection, immune regulation, antioxidation, and anticancer effects. The study confirmed that Antrodia cinnamomea solid-state cultivated mycelium (LAC) has the potential to reduce marginal high total cholesterol with no adverse effects on liver and renal functions. The study also confirmed that LAC had no adverse effects on the kidney function of healthy subjects.
Evidence strength: Antidiabetic and cholesterol-lowering effects are well established in animal models and mechanistically plausible. One small human pilot study supports cholesterol-lowering potential. The evidence base in humans is currently very limited; clinical conclusions await larger randomized controlled trials.
A previous study found that A. camphorata has neuroprotective properties and could reduce stroke injury in cerebral ischemia animal models. One study investigated the molecular mechanisms of neuroprotective effects of A. camphorata in middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rats. Rats were orally treated with A. camphorata (0.25 and 0.75 g/kg/day) alone or combined with aspirin (5 mg/kg/day). Wang et al. (2019) reported that A. camphorata enhanced endogenous neurogenesis by increasing the generation of endogenous neural stem/progenitor cells through the mechanism of upregulating the expression level of neuroprotective Bcl-2 proteins via activating Akt/GSK-3-associated β-catenin.
Antrodia camphorata was the first mushroom described to possess anti-neuroinflammatory activities. The methanol extract of the wild fruiting bodies was shown to reduce both mRNA and protein expression of iNOS in LPS/IFN-γ-activated EOC13.31 mouse microglial cells in a dose-dependent manner. The extract also caused a dose-dependent decrease in TNF-α gene expression.
Evidence strength: Neuroprotective evidence is entirely preclinical (in vitro cell studies and animal stroke models). No human clinical trials in neurological endpoints have been identified. Evidence is preliminary.
Other pharmacological activities of A. camphorata documented in scientific literature encompass antiatherosclerotic, antihypertensive, and antiplatelet activities in preclinical models. Recent research has revealed that Niuchangchih (Antrodia camphorata) possesses extensive biological activity, such as hepatoprotective, antihypertensive, anti-hyperlipidemic, immuno-modulatory, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.
Evidence strength: Antihypertensive and cardiovascular effects are identified in preclinical studies. Human clinical evidence in cardiovascular endpoints has not been identified in the searched literature. Evidence is preliminary.
Based on the available peer-reviewed literature, Antrodia camphorata has been associated with the following organ systems and health domains:
Dosages in published studies vary considerably by preparation type (fruiting body vs. mycelium), extraction method, and target condition. The following reflect only figures reported in identified sources:
Based on a 90-day repeated dose toxicity study and a prenatal developmental toxicity study performed with the novel food, the EFSA NDA Panel derived a safe level of 16.5 mg/kg body weight per day. The Panel concluded that the novel food, freeze-dried mycelia of Antrodia camphorata, is safe at the proposed use level for individuals aged 14 years and above.
The mycelium of A. camphorata has been marketed as a food supplement by Golden Biotechnology Corporation since 2005. The supplement has been tested and approved by the Department of Health, Taiwan. The extract of A. camphorata was approved to be marketed as a health supplement for promoting liver health since 2008. No fatal or severe/serious adverse drug reaction (ADR) has been reported by the marketed product of A. camphorata.
The results of acute (14 days) and repeated (90 days) oral toxicity studies in rats showed an LD50 greater than 5 g/kg body weight and no evident toxicity at 2800 mg/kg/day. The no observable adverse effect dose level (NOAEL) under the conditions of one study was 2800 mg/kg. These studies demonstrate that the tested product has a very low order of toxicity, which supports the safety of the preparation for human consumption.
Histopathological changes were observed in one animal in the high-dose group in the kidneys (calcium deposits), which was considered a possible incidental finding by the EFSA Panel. The NOAEL from the 90-day study was the highest dose tested, 3.3 g/kg body weight per day.
In one 90-day study of disc-cultured A. camphorata fruiting body product (ACP), oral administration caused no mortality, adverse effects on general health, body and organ weights, or food intake. No significant variations were observed in hematological and biochemical parameters among either sex of ACP-treated and control animals. Histopathological examination of vital organs showed no significant structural changes in organs, even in high-dose ACP-treated animals.
In one randomized clinical trial, 3 cases of mild adverse events were recorded in the placebo group. No severe adverse reactions were reported in the Golden-Antrodia camphorata treatment group.
A human pilot study confirmed that the solid-state cultivated mycelium preparation had no adverse effects on the kidney function of healthy subjects, and the change in albumin was within the normal range. Oral administration had no adverse effects on liver and kidney function in adults.
Based on the EFSA review, there are no concerns regarding genotoxicity of the novel food (freeze-dried mycelia of A. camphorata).
Health conditions that Antrodia camphorata may help support.
Body systems that Antrodia camphorata may help support.
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