Babassu

Babassu (Attalea speciosa / Orbignya phalerata)

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Nomenclature

Various scientific names are found for the babassu in current literature, mainly Orbignya phalerata and Attalea speciosa, but also O. speciosa and O. martiana, among others. This multiplicity of names has historically generated considerable confusion in the scientific community. Four independent descriptions in the nineteenth century start babassu nomenclature: the first description was made by Martius in 1826 as Attalea speciosa; the same author described a specimen in Bolivia in 1844 as Orbignya phalerata. Even if the name Orbignya phalerata is considered valid, its use is not indicated, as recent botanical literature about Arecaceae and the plant names indexes embraces the genera lumping into Attalea, and Genera Palmarum (Dransfield et al. 2008) treats Orbignya as a synonymy of Attalea. The currently recommended accepted name is therefore Attalea speciosa Mart. ex Spreng., with Orbignya phalerata Mart. persisting widely in the scientific literature as a synonym.

Taxonomy and Distribution

Babassu (Attalea speciosa) is an economically important palm crop from the Arecaceae family, native to a transition zone between Brazilian Caatinga, Cerrado, and Amazon. The babassu palm tree is native to the Amazonian rainforest and found in Brazil, Bolivia, Suriname, and Guyana. The babassu palm tree, Orbignya phalerata Mart. (Arecaceae), is widely distributed in the Brazilian northern, northeastern, and mid-western regions.

Morphology and Fruit Structure

The babassu palm produces drupe fruits that grow in dense bunches, commonly referred to as coconuts. Each bunch of fruits, weighing 15–90 kg, contains 200–600 fruits. Each fruit is elliptic to oblong, 6–12 × 4–10 cm, and 40–440 g in dry weight. The epicarp is fibrous, 1–4 mm thick; the endocarp is ligneous, 35–75 mm in diameter, containing 3–6 oval to elliptical seeds, each 3–6 cm in length, with oily and white endosperm.

The babassu fruit is composed of four parts: the epicarp (11%), mesocarp (23%), endocarp (59%), and seeds (7%). The seeds are the source of babassu oil, which is the highest value-added product obtained from fruit processing.

Common Forms and Preparations

Babassu is used in several distinct commercial and traditional forms derived from different parts of the fruit:

• Babassu kernel oil: Cold-pressed or solvent-extracted oil from the seed kernels, economically important in several Brazilian regions due to its nutritional and healthy features.
• Babassu mesocarp flour (BMF): The inner pulp (mesocarp) is ground into nutritious flour for breads, cakes, and vitamin supplements.
• Mesocarp extracts: Hydroalcoholic or ethanolic extracts of the dried mesocarp, used for pharmacological research.
• Babassu microemulsions: Pharmaceutical nanotechnology preparations designed to enhance the bioavailability of the oil's active constituents.
• Endocarp charcoal: The husks are used to produce charcoal.

The method of extraction highly affects the quality of the derived oil. For pharmaceutical and cosmetic purposes, the preferred technique is the cold-pressed extraction, as it preserves its chemical composition and maintains its resistance against oxidation.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Socioeconomic and Cultural Context

The babassu palm is a very important forest resource for over 300,000 families in Maranhão State, Northeastern Brazil. Its exploitation represents a vital source of income and subsistence for socially and economically vulnerable communities. The harvesting, cracking, and processing of babassu coconut is a traditional practice passed down through generations and carried out predominantly by women, known as babassu breakers.

Among indigenous communities such as the Paiter Suruí of Southwestern Amazonia, babassu is utilized for construction (e.g., thatching homes), crafting utensils (e.g., basketry), and food (e.g., mesocarp flour and insects), though traditional medicinal uses have largely been abandoned.

Traditional Medicinal Uses

Babassu (Orbignya phalerata Mart.) is a palm tree well distributed in Latin America whose fruit has a mesocarp and kernel used for human feeding, and empirically related to the treatment of gastritis, vaginitis, and wound healing.

Among babassu-processing communities, babassu oil is used for cooking but also medically to treat skin wounds and inflammation, and vulvovaginitis. The oil extracted from the kernels is applied topically to moisturize the skin, treat wounds and burns, and relieve muscle pain. Internally, babassu oil is consumed to treat gastrointestinal problems and as a mild laxative.

The mesocarp is often processed into flour, used to combat verminosis, diarrhea, and inflammation. Infusions and decoctions made from the leaves, coconut shell, or roots are used to treat coughs, bronchitis, kidney problems, and infections.

Babassu is taken by mouth for arthritis, cancer, constipation, stomach and intestine swelling, swelling or infection of the female genital tract, obesity, pain, and diseases of the veins. Some people also apply babassu to the skin for ulcers, swelling or infections of the female genital tract, and wound healing.

The tree has a long history of use throughout its natural habitat, from folk and traditional medicine to construction materials, food, and cosmetic products. These traditional uses are transmitted orally between generations and represent an important primary healthcare system for many communities, based on observation and accumulated experience over time.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Kernel Oil: Fatty Acid Profile

Babassu oil is rich in saturated fatty acids (80–91%), with emphasis on lauric, myristic, palmitic, capric, caprylic, and stearic acids. The remainder are unsaturated fatty acids (9–20%), where oleic acid and linoleic acid are present.

Babassu oil's major constituents are saturated fatty acids (~86.42%), with the most prevalent fatty acids being lauric (~47.40%), myristic (15.64%), and oleic (~11.28%) acids, respectively, within the recommended range by Codex Alimentarius, presenting atherogenicity and thrombogenicity indexes favorable for human consumption.

The detailed fatty acid profile, as determined in a 2019 cold-press study (PMC6930611), shows the following order of abundance: lauric (47.40%) > myristic (15.64%) > oleic (11.28%) > palmitic (8.01%) > caprylic (6.21%) > capric (5.78%) > stearic (3.15%) > linoleic (1.85%) > linolenic (0.25%), with numerous additional minor fatty acids present in trace amounts.

Babassu oil is a lauric fat, semi-solid at room temperature. The fatty acids distribute as 63% trisaturated triglycerides, 30% monounsaturated ones, and 7% di-olein-monosaturates. The oil also contains free fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, and other minor compounds such as sterols, phospholipids, fat-soluble vitamins, pigments, and minerals.

Peroxide value, Rancimat, and TGA/DSC results have indicated that babassu oil is stable to oxidation. Macro- and micro-elements (Na, K, Ca, Mg, P; Fe, Mn, Cr, Se, Al, and Zn) have been detected in the oil at levels below the tolerable upper intake levels for adults.

Mesocarp Flour: Proximate Composition

Babassu mesocarp flour (BMF) exhibits significant variation in its chemical composition across different preparations: starch (65.63–84.57%), moisture (10.53–12.89%), proteins (1.39–1.77%), lipids (0.17–1.51%), fibers (11.11–16.48%), and ashes (1.04–1.59%). One characterization reported BMF as a fine powder with a high content of resistant starch (98% RS), and classified it as a byproduct of babassu oil extraction.

Mesocarp: Phenolic Compounds and Other Bioactives

Babassu mesocarp is a by-product of kernel oil manufacture, reported as a rich source of phenolic compounds of biotechnological potential due to its anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties.

The mesocarp ethanolic extract has been found to contain 56% total polyphenols, including 55% phenolic acids and 1% flavonoids. The main phenolics detected across extraction studies are flavonoids and tannins. Research has shown that non-edible parts (mesocarp, epicarp, endocarp) of babassu contain significant levels of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, phytosterols, and other bioactive metabolites with antioxidant properties.

One study identified ergostanol-3-benzoate in the mesocarp by NMR experiments, representing the first identification of babassu mesocarp chemical constituents in 1 and 2-dimensions, also reporting fatty acids, phytosteroids, and terpenes among the key compound classes.

Babassu fruit contains a polysaccharide called MP1 glucan that reduces early stages of inflammation. α-Glucan from babassu may contribute to phagocytic amplification and vascular protection via residual chains of 1→3 bonds not hydrolyzed by amylase.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Anti-inflammatory Pathways

Babassu oil and its primary constituent lauric acid have been shown to exert anti-inflammatory activity in mice ear edema models through inhibition of the eicosanoid pathway and bioactive amines.

Oleic acid, present in babassu oil, has been reported to modulate the immune response in wound healing through upregulation of collagen, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), IL-10, and TNF-α and downregulation of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expressions, in addition to a decrease in the inflammatory infiltrate after 5 days.

The immunomodulatory effect of babassu mesocarp on inflammation appears to be related to the capacity of compounds present in the extract to inhibit the production of TNF-α and IL-6 cytokines.

Despite the high content of saturated fatty acids in crude kernel oil, it has been hypothesized that vascular permeability decrease and leukocyte adhesion effects may be attributable to the anti-inflammatory action of oleic acid and the antioxidant effect of α-tocopherol.

Wound Healing Mechanisms

In vitro, babassu oil increased the migration of L929 fibroblasts, inhibited the production of nitric oxide by LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophages, and increased the levels of INF-γ and IL-6 cytokine production. In vivo, babassu oil accelerated the healing process in a full-thickness splinted wound model, through an increase in fibroblast numbers, blood vessels, and collagen deposition in the wounds.

Immunomodulatory Mechanisms

Microemulsions containing babassu oil improve human immune system function by increasing superoxide anion release, phagocytosis of mononuclear phagocytes, and antimicrobial activities.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

Flavonoid-rich babassu mesocarp extracts retain antioxidant activity even after simulated gastrointestinal digestion, significantly reducing intracellular reactive oxygen species, restoring mitochondrial function, and modulating oxidative stress–related gene expression in HepG2 cells.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Preclinical animal and in vitro evidence (no controlled human trials available).

A 2017 study (Reis et al., published in Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine) evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity of babassu oil and developed a microemulsion system with babassu oil for topical delivery. Topical anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated in a mice ear edema model using PMA, arachidonic acid, ethyl phenylpropiolate, phenol, and capsaicin as phlogistic agents. Microemulsification of babassu oil appeared to enhance skin permeation of anti-inflammatory active compounds found in the oil, reaching the same percentages of edema inhibition as pure babassu oil with a much lower oil concentration.

In a separate study, babassu oil showed an anti-inflammatory effect in a chronic ear edema model, reducing ear thickness, epidermal hyperplasia, and myeloperoxidase activity.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only (murine models and cell cultures). No randomized controlled human trials have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature for this indication.

5.2 Wound Healing

Preclinical in vitro and in vivo evidence only.

A 2020 study (PMC7532363) examined wound healing properties of babassu oil in both in vitro and in vivo settings. In vitro, babassu oil increased the migration of L929 fibroblasts, inhibited nitric oxide production by LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophages, and increased INF-γ and IL-6 cytokine levels. In vivo, babassu oil accelerated the healing process in a full-thickness splinted wound model, by an increase in the fibroblasts number, blood vessels, and collagen deposition in the wounds. The babassu oil also increased the recruitment of inflammatory cells into the wound site and showed an anti-inflammatory effect in a chronic ear edema model, reducing ear thickness, epidermal hyperplasia, and myeloperoxidase activity.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only. No human clinical trials specifically examining wound healing with babassu oil have been identified.

5.3 Immunomodulation and Antimicrobial Activity

Ex vivo human cell data and murine in vivo models; no controlled clinical trials.

A 2015 study (Pessoa et al., Drug Design, Development and Therapy, PMC4274040) examined the effect of a babassu oil microemulsion on phagocyte function using human blood cells. When assessing the interaction of the microemulsion or babassu oil with phagocytes, the authors observed an increase in superoxide, phagocytosis, and microbicidal activity. Babassu oil increased the microbicidal activity of mononuclear blood phagocytes compared with untreated phagocytes. The study used human blood-derived phagocytes treated ex vivo (n=8 per treatment group).

For antimicrobial activity, a 2016 study (PMC5007311) investigated the ethanolic extract of babassu mesocarp (EE). EE was effective as an antimicrobial against E. faecalis, S. aureus, and MRSA. EE is rich in phenolic acids, a class of compounds with antimicrobial and immunological activity. The study also showed a selective bacteriostatic action in vitro against the Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis, but not against the Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

In a murine lethal sepsis model (cecal ligation and puncture), mice received EE subcutaneously at doses of 125 or 250 mg/kg, 6 hours after the procedure. The onset of death was markedly delayed in mice that received EE treatment.

Evidence strength: Ex vivo human phagocyte data and in vivo murine sepsis models. No controlled clinical trials exist to confirm these findings in humans.

5.4 Antioxidant Activity

In vitro and cell-based evidence only.

Pressurized liquid extraction of babassu mesocarp flour at 95°C provided a total phenolic content of 25.82 ± 1.05 mg GAE/g and antioxidant capacity values of DPPH = 130.54 ± 0.16 µmol TE/g, FRAP = 152.99 ± 3.4 µmol TE/g, ORAC = 158.82 ± 13.66 µmol TE/g, exceeding maceration-based extraction while reducing extraction time from 24 hours to 15 minutes.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction of babassu mesocarp using ethanol (1:25 ratio, 20 min, 20°C) yielded high values for total phenolic content (TPC: 5124.86 ± 350.13 mg GAE/100 g), flavonoids (TFC: 477.45 ± 23.07 mg QE/100 g), and antioxidant capacity (FRAP: 4037.56 ± 187.26 µmol TEAC/100 g, DPPH• remaining 10–38% after stabilization).

Some tests identified the antioxidant potential of babassu to neutralize free radicals and prevent lipid peroxidation; however, one study found a total phenolic content of 288 mg/g in kernel oil but noted that antioxidant activity did not overcome that of ascorbic acid, suggesting there may not be a direct correlation between high levels of phytochemicals and better effects.

Evidence strength: In vitro chemical assay and cell-culture data (HepG2 cells). No human clinical evidence for antioxidant benefits.

5.5 Gynecological/Genitourinary Uses (Vulvovaginitis)

Traditional use only; no controlled clinical trial data identified.

Among babassu-processing communities, babassu oil is used medically to treat skin wounds and inflammation, and vulvovaginitis. This use is documented ethnobotanically but has not been investigated in randomized controlled trials.

5.6 Overall Preclinical Evidence Base

A 2024 systematic review published in Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Springer, open access) comprehensively evaluated the preclinical bioactivity of babassu. The study aimed to report in vitro and in vivo biological activities of O. phalerata constituents using searches across five world databases and PICOS criteria. A total of 28 in vitro (n=15) and in vivo (n=11) studies were included, with two showing both experimental designs. This review represents the most comprehensive synthesis of the existing evidence base and underscores that the totality of available research remains in preclinical stages.

A 2025 systematic review (MDPI Agriculture) following PRISMA guidelines searched five databases (Embase, ScienceDirect, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science), retrieving 410 records of which 23 met inclusion criteria, focusing specifically on phytochemical extraction methods and antioxidant capacity across different babassu fractions. Although research has predominantly focused on the almond fraction, non-edible parts contain significant levels of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, phytosterols, and other bioactive metabolites with antioxidant properties.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

• Integumentary system (skin): Topical wound healing, anti-inflammatory effects on skin, moisturization, potential use in dermatological formulations.
• Immune system: Ex vivo enhancement of phagocyte activity; immunomodulation of cytokine production (TNF-α, IL-6, INF-γ); potential antimicrobial applications against Gram-positive organisms.
• Gastrointestinal system: Traditional use for gastritis, constipation, diarrhea, and verminosis; mesocarp flour used as a functional dietary ingredient.
• Genitourinary system: Traditional topical use for vulvovaginitis.
• Cardiovascular/coagulation system: Babassu may slow blood clotting, and in theory may increase the risk of bruising or bleeding in some people with bleeding disorders.
• Endocrine system (thyroid): Thyroid conditions such as hypothyroidism or goiter may be affected, as babassu might decrease thyroid function.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

There are no established clinical dosing guidelines for babassu from regulatory bodies or pharmacopeial monographs. The dosages below are those reported in specific research studies:

• Topical (crude oil): In a murine chronic ear edema model, mice received 20 µL of 5% croton oil in acetone on alternate days for 9 days; from day 5, mice were treated topically with 10 µL/ear of babassu oil twice a day.
• Subcutaneous injection (mesocarp extract, animal study): In a murine sepsis model, mice received babassu mesocarp ethanolic extract subcutaneously at doses of 125 or 250 mg/kg, 6 hours after cecal ligation and puncture.
• Ex vivo phagocyte study (microemulsion): Results were reported for n=8 subjects per treatment group, but no specific weight- or volume-based oral or topical dose for human use was stated in this study.
• Microemulsion topical formulation: The developed topical formulation consisted of 39% aqueous phase, 12.2% oil phase (babassu oil), and 48.8% surfactant system.

There is not enough reliable published information to determine whether oral or topically applied babassu is safe for humans at any specific dose, or to characterize its full side-effect profile in these routes of administration.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Thyroid Function

Eating babassu fruit and other parts of the plant may impair thyroid function, which can be particularly harmful to people with hypothyroidism. Babassu oil may have an effect on thyroid hormone levels, but there are no conclusive studies to determine whether babassu oil might cause any other hormone or medication interactions.

Blood Coagulation

Babassu might slow blood clotting, and there is a concern that it might cause extra bleeding during and after surgery. Perioperative guidance in the literature recommends stopping babassu intake at least 2 weeks before surgery. Research suggests that babassu fruit flour may slow the body's blood-clotting ability.

Pregnancy and Lactation

There is insufficient reliable information to determine if babassu is safe to use when pregnant or breastfeeding; accordingly, avoidance of use during these periods has been recommended as a precaution.

Allergic Cross-Reactivity

Babassu and coconut both belong to the palm tree family (Arecaceae). It is possible that those with coconut allergies may also be allergic to babassu.

Oxidative Stability

Cold-press extraction using a domestic machine has been shown to yield a high-quality oil that keeps chemical composition stable to oxidation with natural antioxidants. Extra-virgin babassu oil has been reported to be lighter and more thermally stable than virgin babassu oil obtained by other extraction methods.

General Evidence Limitations

So far, there is not enough scientific evidence to determine whether or not babassu is effective for any of its proposed clinical indications. The entire scientific evidence base for babassu as a health ingredient consists of preclinical studies (in vitro and animal models), ex vivo human cell experiments, and ethnobotanical documentation. No randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials have been published to confirm efficacy or long-term safety in humans for any indication.

References

• Chemical Constituent Analysis of the Babassu (Orbignya phalerata Mart.) Mesocarp — ResearchGate / Universitas Scientiarum, 2019
• What is the name of the babassu? A note on the confusing use of scientific names — Rodriguésia / SciELO Brazil
• Orbignya phalerata Arecaceae Mart. — World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Tree Functional Attributes and Ecological Database
• Integral Processing of Babassu Palm Fruits: Village Level Production in Maranhão, Brazil — Economic Botany, Springer
• Physicochemical and Thermal Characterization of Babassu Oils Obtained by Different Extraction Methods — Food Research International, ScienceDirect, 2020
• The Fatty Acids and Glycerides of Babassu Oil — Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, Springer
• Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Babassu Oil and Development of a Microemulsion System for Topical Delivery — PMC / Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2017
• In Vitro and In Vivo Wound Healing and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Babassu Oil (Attalea speciosa) — PMC, 2020
• Microemulsion of Babassu Oil as a Natural Product to Improve Human Immune System Function — PMC / Drug Design, Development and Therapy, 2015
• Immunomodulatory and Antimicrobial Activity of Babassu Mesocarp Improves the Survival in Lethal Sepsis — PMC, 2016
• First Study on the Oxidative Stability and Elemental Analysis of Babassu (Attalea speciosa) Edible Oil — PMC, 2019
• Babassu (Attalea speciosa) Mesocarp Flour Extract Inhibits Lipid Peroxidation and Pro-Oxidant Enzymes: In Vitro and In Silico Evidence — Foods (MDPI), 2026
• Recovery of Phenolic Compounds From Babassu Mesocarp Flour Using Pressurized Liquid Extraction — PMC / Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 2026
• Green Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Bioactive Compounds of Babassu Mesocarp — ScienceDirect, 2023
• Comprehensive Preclinical Studies on the Bioactivity of Orbignya phalerata Mart. (Babassu): A Systematic Review — Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Springer Open, 2024
• Babassu (Attalea speciosa) Mesocarp Flour Extract Inhibits Lipid Peroxidation and Pro-Oxidant Enzymes — Foods (MDPI), 2026
• Valorization of Babassu (Attalea speciosa) Waste: A Systematic Review of Phytochemical Extraction Methods and Antioxidant Capacity — Agriculture (MDPI), 2026
• Bioactive Films Based on Babassu Mesocarp Flour and Starch — Food Hydrocolloids, ScienceDirect, 2017
• Babassu: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions — WebMD Natural Medicines
• Babassu (Attalea speciosa) as a Cultural Keystone Species for the Paiter Suruí People — Springer Nature
• Women Babassu Nutcrackers Demand Compliance with Legislation — InfoAmazonia, 2024
• Antioxidative Effect and Phytochemical Profile of Natural Products from the Fruits of Babaçu and Buriti — Food and Chemical Toxicology, ScienceDirect, 2018
• Babassu Mesocarp Flour: A Nutritive Brazilian By-product for Gluten-free Muffins — Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, Taylor & Francis, 2021