Bergamot

Bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso & Poiteau): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Botanical and Chemical Names

Bergamot's botanical name under the Vienna Code of 2006 is Citrus × bergamia Risso & Poiteau, and it is a citrus fruit that grows almost exclusively in southern Italy in a restricted area of the Calabrian coast. The plant belongs to the family Rutaceae. It has also been classified as C. aurantium subsp. bergamia, i.e., a subspecies of bitter orange. Commonly known as the bergamot orange, it is a fragrant citrus fruit approximately the size of an orange, with a yellow or green color similar to a lime, depending on ripeness.

Genetic Origins

Genetic research into the ancestral origins of extant citrus cultivars found bergamot orange to be a probable hybrid of lemon (itself a hybrid between bitter orange and citron) and bitter orange. The exact origin of bergamot remains uncertain, with theories ranging from the Canary Islands to China or Greece.

Cultivation and Geography

Bergamot flourishes predominantly in the narrow coastal strip that extends from Reggio Calabria to Locri in the southernmost part of the Italian peninsula, where 95% of global production occurs. Production is on a large scale in the Ionian Sea coastal areas of the province of Reggio di Calabria in Italy, to such an extent that it is a symbol of the entire city. Three main cultivars — called Femminello, Fantastico, and Castagnaro — are known.

Morphology

Citrus bergamia is a small tree that blossoms during the winter. When in bloom, the bergamot — a small tree reaching four meters in height — is covered with a multitude of fragrant, white flowers. The fruit ripens between December and March, and the essential oil is cold-pressed from the rind of the ripe fruit.

Common Forms and Preparations

Dietary supplements that contain bergamot are usually made from the fruit's flesh and peel. Bergamot essential oils are made from the fruit peel. It is available as a dietary supplement that can be swallowed and as an essential oil that may be applied to the skin or inhaled as aromatherapy. The principal commercial preparations used in research and supplementation include:

• Bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) — a standardized polyphenol extract of the juice and/or peel, the most widely studied oral supplement form.
• Bergamot essential oil (BEO) — obtained by cold pressing the epicarp and mesocarp of the fresh fruit, used primarily in aromatherapy, perfumery, and flavoring.
• Bergamot juice/phytocomplex — the raw or processed juice, used in some clinical trials.
• Furocoumarin-free (FCF) bergamot oil — bergapten-depleted oil produced by fractional distillation, used in cosmetics to reduce phototoxicity risk.

Bergamot essential oil is one of the main basic constituents for the manufacture of perfumes, due to its ability to fix the aromatic bouquet of aromas and harmonize all of the essences, enhancing the fragrance. The oil also famously flavors Earl Grey tea. Bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia), a probable hybrid of the lemon and bitter orange, is a small citrus tree that blossoms during the winter; it is grown extensively in Calabria, Italy, accounting for 90% of the world's bergamot oil production.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Etymology and Early History

The word bergamot is derived from the French word bergamote, which is in turn derived from the Italian word bergamotta, named for Bergamo. The story of bergamot begins in the windswept groves of southern Italy, where the Mediterranean's most prized citrus has been cultivated for over 300 years.

Perfumery and Cologne

Bergamot has been used historically almost exclusively for the properties of the essential oil, particularly requested in perfumery as endowed with an exclusive fragrance which is still being used as a basis for preparing several perfumes by the most famous perfume industries and for producing "Acqua di Colonia". The Renaissance period marked a significant turning point for Citrus Bergamot, as it became a cornerstone of the burgeoning perfume industry. Italy, particularly the region of Calabria, became the epicenter of Bergamot cultivation, and the fruit's essential oil gained fame for its exquisite fragrance.

Traditional Medicinal Use in Southern Italy

In traditional Italian medicine, bergamot has been used for many ailments. The juice of the bergamot orange was believed to treat various digestive issues, while the peel was often used in remedies for fever and tropical diseases. Bergamot essential oil has also been used in aromatherapy for mood regulation and stress relief. The bergamot orange is also known to possess significant antiseptic properties, and a derivative of bergamot orange, called Bergamon, has been manufactured and used as a disinfectant in operating theatres for many years. Moreover, the relaxing properties of bergamot orange extracts, and its important nutraceutical properties, are known from traditional medicine.

As reported by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) monograph in the Herbal Medicinal Products section, traditional and folk medicine use of BEO has long been known, but only in the last ten years have preclinical studies provided several data to support potential therapeutic use of the essential oil.

Earl Grey Tea

Some credit Sir Joseph Banks with adding bergamot to tea. The blend was most likely given the name Earl Grey, after Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey (1764–1845), the UK's Prime Minister of the time, who supposedly received the tea with bergamot as a gift. For almost 200 years, bergamot has been one of the most popular oils for scenting black tea leaves. In fact, even people who are not regular tea drinkers are likely to have tried bergamot tea at least once in their life. This oil is an essential ingredient of Earl Grey tea blends and had an enormous impact on Western tea culture.

Aromatherapy and Mood

The essential oil obtained from the fresh fruit of Citrus bergamia Risso et Poiteau is used worldwide in aromatherapy to reduce pain, facilitate sleep induction, and/or minimize the effects of stress-induced anxiety. Bergamot oil also has a long history of use in aromatherapy for its calming effects.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Bergamot Essential Oil (BEO) — Volatile Fraction

BEO contains several bioactive molecules with potential health benefits. It is composed of both a volatile (93–96% of total) and a non-volatile (4–7% of total) fraction. The volatile fraction is mainly represented by monoterpene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, and their oxygenated derivatives, along with aliphatic aldehydes, alcohols, and esters. The volatile fraction includes monoterpene limonene (25–53%) and high quantities of oxygenated compounds, such as linalool (2–20%), linalyl acetate (15–40%), γ-terpinene, and β-pinene.

Of particular interest is the most abundant fraction (93–96%), i.e., the volatile one including oxygenated compounds, such as linalool and linalyl acetate, and monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, such as limonene, known to be the most pharmacologically active components.

Non-Volatile Fraction of BEO

The non-volatile fraction (4–7% of total) contains pigments, waxes, coumarins, and psoralens (such as 5-methoxypsoralen, also known as bergapten or 5-MOP, contained in about 0.2%), as well as bergamottine [5-geranyloxypsoralen]. Chemically, BEO is a complex mixture of many classes of organic substances, particularly in the volatile fraction, including terpenes, esters, alcohols and aldehydes, and for the non-volatile fraction, oxygenated heterocyclic compounds such as coumarins and furanocoumarins. The main non-volatile compounds are coumarins (citropten, 5-geranyloxy-7-methoxycoumarin) and furanocoumarins (bergapten, bergamottin).

Bergamot Juice / Polyphenolic Fraction — Flavonoids

The chemical composition of bergamot juice mainly consists of a high content of flavonoids, including naringin, neohesperidin, neoeriocitrin, melitidin, brutieridin, and diosmin, and traces of poncirin and rhoifolin, whose biological activity is widely acknowledged. Bergamot is characterized by a unique profile in flavonoids, including flavanones (such as naringenin, hesperetin and eriodictyol glycosides), flavones (apigenin, luteolin, chrysoeriol and diosmetin glycosides) and their 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl derivatives.

Specifically, brutieridin and melitidin have been shown to produce inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase. These two compounds — unique to bergamot among commonly consumed citrus — are structurally analogous to the statin pharmacophore and are regarded as the principal cholesterol-modulating constituents of the polyphenolic fraction.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Lipid Metabolism

Recent data showed that BPF directly inhibits the endogenous biosynthesis of cholesterol, acting directly on the rate-limiting enzyme hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl CoA reductase (HMG-CoA reductase). In particular, BPF has been shown to contain large amounts of glycosylated polyphenols (in particular brutieridin and melitidin), which have been shown to possess statin-like activity, thereby inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase. However, to date, there has not been any definitive in vitro validation that flavonoids from bergamot share a similar mechanism for inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase.

A second mechanism that has been proposed with bergamot polyphenols is the activation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Activation of AMPK by small molecules improves glucose homeostasis and lipid profiles.

Some of the chemicals in the flesh and peel of the bergamot fruit, called flavonoids, act as antioxidants. They may also decrease the amount of cholesterol made by the liver and increase the breakdown of bad (LDL) cholesterol.

Anti-Inflammatory Pathways

Bergamot polyphenolic formulation (BPF99) reduced inflammation in a mouse model of NAFLD by inhibiting the activation of the JNK and p38 MAPKs pathways responsible for an overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and collagen deposition, which may precede liver fibrosis. The in vivo effect of bergamot phytocomplex can be ascribed not only to bergamot polyphenols with well-known anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and lipid-regulating effects, but also to the dietary fibers and to the non-phenolic constituents, such as stachydrine.

Neurological / Anxiolytic Mechanisms (Essential Oil)

Preclinical pharmacological data demonstrate that bergamot essential oil (BEO) modulates specific neurotransmissions and shows an anxiolytic-relaxant effect not superimposable to that of the benzodiazepine diazepam, suggesting that neurotransmissions other than GABAergic could be involved. A previous study showed that BEO significantly increased gamma-aminobutyric acid levels in rat hippocampus, suggesting potential anxiolytic properties.

A 2024/2025 study found that treatment with 1.0% bergamot essential oil exerts anxiolytic-like effects through a neural circuit projecting from the anterior olfactory nucleus (AON) to the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in an acute restraint stress model in mice. Inhalation exposure to 1.0% BEO can activate glutamatergic projections from the AON to GABAergic neurons in the ACC, which drives inhibition of local glutamatergic neurons.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Risk Markers

This is the most extensively researched area for oral bergamot supplementation. A 2019 narrative review included a total of 31 studies (20 studies on humans with 1,709 subjects and 11 in animals). In humans, bergamot-derived extract (BE) exerts positive effects on hyperlipidemia with an oral dose from 150 mg to 1,000 mg/day of flavonoids administered for 30 to 180 days, demonstrating an effect on body weight and in modulating total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL, and HDL.

A systematic review found that bergamot supplementation significantly reduces total cholesterol by 12.3–31.3% and LDL cholesterol by 7.6–40.8%. 75% of the 12 studies included showed a significant lipid profile improvement with bergamot. Quality of included studies was limited, with scores ranging from 0.27 to 0.96 out of 1. A dose-dependent and possible synergistic effect when administering bergamot with statins can be inferred from these trials. It is essential to point out that studies had heterogeneous designs and scientific quality was quite limited. Promising findings reveal an alternative therapeutic option in dyslipidemia management with bergamot supplementation, especially in subjects with statin intolerance.

A systematic review found that eight out of twelve included studies that reported significant improvements in HDL-C levels following bergamot supplementation. The review also highlighted variability among studies, with some reporting no significant changes and others noting slight reductions in HDL-C levels, ranging from 1% to 6.5%. This variability may stem from the lack of standardization of active ingredients across studies, combined with the biological complexity of flavonoids.

A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, three-arm, parallel-group clinical trial in 90 adult subjects (30 per group) treated for 12 weeks with two different dosages of a highly standardized bergamot phytocomplex or placebo assessed lipid plasma levels, glycemia, plasma hs-CRP, HOMA-IR, body fat, endothelial reactivity, and fatty liver index. At the end of treatment, both tested bergamot extract doses were able to significantly improve atherogenic dyslipidemia and insulin sensitivity compared to placebo.

One study using the F105 extract reported: after 12 weeks, a reduction compared to baseline was observed with LDL (−8%), total cholesterol (−4%), triglycerides (−34%), oxidized LDL (−6%) and an increase in HDL (+54%).

Evidence strength: Moderate, with multiple positive RCTs and systematic reviews indicating consistent benefit on total cholesterol and LDL. However, study quality is heterogeneous, many trials are small, standardization of extracts varies, and independent replication remains limited. Studies in animals confirm these encouraging results, but only in animals kept on a high-fat diet.

5.2 Blood Glucose and Metabolic Syndrome

The effect of bergamot polyphenolic fraction leads to a reduction in cholesterol serum levels, glucose and triglycerides, a biological response accompanied by a reduction in systemic inflammation and, subsequently, an improvement in endothelial function. These effects were confirmed in patients treated with BPF, which showed a powerful effect in modulating the lipoproteins hepatic traffic and was able to counteract non-alcoholic liver disease (NAFLD).

One clinical extract (BPE-C) reduced significantly fasting glucose by 18.1%, triglycerides by 32% and cholesterol parameters by up to 41.4%, leading to a powerful reduction of the atherogenic index of plasma in the high-dose group.

Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate. Reductions in fasting glucose have been reported in some trials, primarily in subjects with metabolic syndrome or dyslipidemia, but this outcome is secondary in most studies and evidence is less consistent than for lipid effects.

5.3 Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD/MASLD)

Experimental and epidemiological studies show that bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) ameliorates the serum lipemic profile, normalizes blood pressure and improves non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in patients suffering from metabolic syndrome. Both histopathological and serum biomarkers of non-alcoholic liver disease (NAFLD) were normalized by BPF, thus suggesting a clear correlation between the effect of BPF and the improvement of biochemical modulation occurring in liver tissues.

A 2020 randomized clinical trial examined the effects of a combination of bergamot polyphenols and wild cardoon in reducing liver fat in non-diabetic individuals with NAFLD: the combination (BC) significantly reduced the CAP score by 7% after 12 weeks, and the main finding was that BC reduced the CAP score by 15% in participants over 50 years.

Preclinically, BPF had no effect on standard-diet-induced weight loss, but it accelerated hepatic lipid droplets clearance and reduced blood triglycerides. Accordingly, BPF improved insulin sensitivity.

Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate. Most compelling data are from animal models. Human RCT data on NAFLD are sparse and almost always involve combination preparations (e.g., bergamot + artichoke or cardoon), making it difficult to isolate the effect of bergamot alone.

5.4 Anxiety, Stress, and Mood (Aromatherapy)

Clinical studies on the therapeutic applications of BEO exclusively focus on the field of aromatherapy, suggesting that its use can be useful for reducing anxiety and stress.

Clinical studies report that bergamot oil aromatherapy can lower heart rate and blood pressure and reduce stress and anxiety levels.

Endocrinological, physiological, and psychological effects of BEO vapor inhalation on 41 healthy females were tested using a random crossover study design — one of the more frequently cited small-scale human trials on BEO inhalation and mood.

One pilot study provides preliminary evidence of the efficacy and safety of bergamot essential oil inhalation on mental well-being in a mental health treatment center, suggesting that bergamot essential oil aromatherapy can be an effective adjunct.

However, negative findings also exist: a randomized, blinded clinical trial evaluated the effects of aromatherapy on medical office-induced anxiety in children with an autism spectrum disorder. Patients awaiting office visits were randomized into an aromatherapy group and a control group. After adjusting for baseline scores, there was no significant difference between the two groups.

Preclinically, BEO is used widely in aromatherapy to reduce stress and anxiety despite limited scientific evidence. A study showed that BEO significantly increased gamma-aminobutyric acid levels in rat hippocampus, suggesting potential anxiolytic properties. Analysis of data suggests that BEO induces anxiolytic-like/relaxant effects in animal behavioral tasks not superimposable to those of the benzodiazepine diazepam. The observations provide further insight to the pharmacological profile of BEO and support its rational use in aromatherapy.

Evidence strength: Weak to preliminary in humans. Most human aromatherapy studies are small, lack blinding (due to the detectable odor), and rely on self-reported outcomes. Animal and mechanistic data are more convincing, but direct translation to clinical outcomes in humans remains uncertain.

5.5 Inflammation (Oral Supplementation)

Anti-inflammatory effects were observed for a dietary supplement (BruMeChol™) composed of a mixture of flavonoids extracted from bergamot, olive polyphenols, plant sterols and vitamin K2, in patients with mild hypercholesterolemia. The nutraceutical combination significantly lowered circulating levels of inflammatory mediators, including IL-6, IL-32, IL-37 and IL-38, hs-CRP, and inflamma-microRNA miR-21 and miR-146a.

Evidence strength: Very preliminary; most human anti-inflammatory data come from combination products, limiting conclusions about bergamot's independent contribution.

5.6 Antimicrobial Activity (In Vitro)

It has been reported that BEO has both antibacterial and antifungal activity against Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as dermatophytes. The in vitro activity of BEO against Candida species suggests BEO's potential role in the topical treatment of Candida infections. BEO is also active against dermatophytes in vitro.

Evidence strength: In vitro only. No well-controlled human clinical trials exist to support antimicrobial therapeutic use of BEO.

5.7 Pain (Preclinical)

The essential oil of bergamot (BEO) has consistently proven antinociceptive and antiallodynic properties. The analgesic efficacy of the decolored essential oil (DEC), with higher levels of limonene, and the deterpenated (DET) fraction, with higher levels of linalool and linalyl acetate, was investigated using a formalin test after inhalation.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (animal model) only. No clinical trials have evaluated BEO for analgesia in humans.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Cardiovascular system: Lipid-lowering, improvements in atherogenic dyslipidemia, endothelial function, and oxidized LDL (oral polyphenolic extract).
• Hepatic / metabolic: NAFLD/MASLD improvement, insulin sensitivity, fasting glucose, and triglyceride reduction.
• Central nervous system / mood: Anxiolytic and stress-modulating properties via aromatherapy (GABAergic and serotonergic pathways, olfactory-cortical circuit).
• Integumentary (skin): Antimicrobial activity in vitro; topical use historically for wound care; note: phototoxicity risk from furocoumarin-containing oil limits direct topical application.
• Digestive system: Traditional use for digestive complaints; some emerging interest in gut-health benefits from polyphenol fiber interactions.
• Nociceptive system: Preclinical antinociceptive and anti-allodynic properties of essential oil by inhalation.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Dosages below are reported directly from published human studies and reviews; they are not recommendations.

• Oral bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) for dyslipidemia: Treatment should involve at least an oral dose of 150 mg/day of flavonoids (bergamot-derived extract) for 6 months, or an oral dose of bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) from 500 to 1,000 mg/day for 30/60 days for a reduction of body weight or decrease in total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL and an increase of HDL.
• Oral bergamot phytocomplex (RCT, 3-arm design): In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, three-arm, parallel-group clinical trial, 90 adult subjects (30 per group) were treated for 12 weeks with two different dosages of a highly standardized bergamot phytocomplex or placebo.
• Duration range observed across studies: 30 to 180 days of oral supplementation across the human studies reviewed.
• Essential oil for aromatherapy: Clinical studies are lacking to provide dosage recommendations. Bergamot oil is principally used in aromatherapy.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Phototoxicity (Essential Oil)

Oil of bergamot possesses photosensitive and melanogenic properties because of the presence of furocoumarins, primarily bergapten (5-methoxypsoralen [5-MOP]). 5-MOP is also potentially phototoxic and photomutagenic.

Bergamot essential oil is a widely used aromatic ingredient in cosmetics that may be applied on sun-exposed skin areas, although components such as bergapten, citropten, bergamotene, and other furocoumarins may cause phototoxic effects. Psoralen can induce skin cancer due to the formation of covalent DNA adducts by exposure to ultraviolet A or solar light.

Bergamot oil normally contains 0.11–0.33% bergapten. It can be re-processed using fractional distillation, in order to remove all, or virtually all of the bergapten. This is known as bergapten-free Bergamot oil, or Bergamot FCF (furanocoumarin-free). Lime, lemon and grapefruit oils can also be produced with low or zero furanocoumarins. These bergapten-free oils are considered to be non-phototoxic.

Many citrus-derived ingredients contain constituents that are photoactive; those that are noted to be furocoumarin-free tended not to induce photosensitization. Phototoxicity and photosensitization were noted in several patients exposed to bergamot oil or limes/lime juice.

Internal Use of Essential Oil

Bergapten, a furocoumarin found in bergamot oil, has been shown to alter potassium channel currents, causing twitching and muscle cramps. Direct topical use is discouraged due to psoralen photodermatotoxicity; internal use may cause muscular cramping and should also be avoided. There is a case report of a 44-year-old man who experienced muscle cramps, fasciculations, paresthesias, and blurred vision after consuming up to 4 L of Earl Grey tea (flavored with bergamot oil) daily. All symptoms disappeared after switching to pure black tea. When used in aromatherapy, bergamot oil is well tolerated.

Potential Drug Interactions

Bergamot may interact with drugs that cause photosensitivity, as well as certain antibiotics and diabetes medications. While some studies suggest that bergamot extract may enhance statin effects, combining them could intensify their effects and raise the risk of muscle pain (myopathy).

Though no clinical trials have reported on coenzyme Q10 levels following bergamot administration, it may be another possible benefit over statins, as statins are well known to decrease plasma levels of coenzyme Q10.

Oral Supplement Tolerability

In clinical trials of oral BPF, clinical observations suggest the F105 extract was safe and efficacious in lowering of lipid biomarkers. However, the overall safety profile of long-term oral bergamot polyphenol supplementation has not been established in large, high-quality controlled trials.

Furocoumarin Therapeutic Properties

Furanocoumarins do have therapeutic properties. Ones they tend to have in common include anti-inflammatory, antitumoral, hypoglycemic (diabetes) and prevention of osteoporosis effects. Bergapten may also be useful in Alzheimer's disease and depression. These findings are preliminary and mostly preclinical.

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