IngredientsThe term buffalo in the context of dietary supplements and natural ingredients encompasses several distinct biological sources, each with its own phytochemical identity, historical use, and nutritional profile. The two principal subjects treated in the scientific and ethnobotanical literature under this name are: (1) Buffaloberry (Shepherdia spp.) — a native North American shrub fruit used as a botanical food, medicine, and emerging functional ingredient; and (2) Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) — a livestock animal whose meat, milk, and derived products are studied as dietary supplements and functional foods. Both are addressed in this article, with each section clearly attributing claims to their respective source. A third plant bearing the "buffalo" prefix, buffalograss (Bouteloua dactyloides), is a North American prairie grass that serves primarily as forage and turf; it does not appear meaningfully in the dietary supplement literature and is not treated in depth here.
Shepherdia, commonly called buffaloberry or bullberry, is a genus of small shrubs in the family Elaeagnaceae. The plants are native to northern and western North America and are non-legume nitrogen fixers.
There are only three species of buffaloberry in the world, all native to North America: Silver Buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea (Pursh) Nutt.), Russet Buffaloberry (S. canadensis (L.) Nutt.), and Roundleaf Buffaloberry (S. rotundifolia Perry). Of these, S. argentea and S. canadensis are most prominent in the nutritional and ethnobotanical literature.
Shepherdia argentea originates from the North American continent, especially the prairie landscapes in the center and north, found from California, Arizona, and New Mexico northward into the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.
Silver buffaloberry (S. argentea) is a deciduous shrub growing from 2–6 metres tall. Its leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, 2–6 centimetres long, oval with a rounded apex, and green with a covering of fine silvery, silky hairs. The flowers are pale yellow, with four sepals but no petals. The fruit is a bright red fleshy drupe 5 mm in diameter; it is edible but with a rather bitter taste.
Other names for buffaloberry include: soapberry, bullberry, rabbitberry, chaparral berry, silverleaf, soopolallie, and graise de boeuf.
The name "buffaloberry" may have originated when the fruits were used to spice up buffalo meat and/or when the fruits were ripe it was time for the buffalo hunt.
Buffaloberry fruit has historically been prepared and consumed in several forms:
The related species Shepherdia canadensis (russet buffaloberry or soapberry) is notable for a unique preparation: when the berries are vigorously whipped, the saponins they contain cause the juice to foam into a whipped, ice cream-like dessert sometimes called "Indian ice cream" or sxusem in some First Nations languages. This tradition is documented among Athabascan, Carrier, Wet'suwet'en, and Interior Salish peoples of Canada and the northern Rocky Mountain region.
In contemporary supplement and functional food contexts, buffaloberry is encountered primarily as dried fruit, fruit powder, or extracts standardized to carotenoid or polyphenol content, though commercially available standardized preparations remain limited.
Shepherdia argentea has historically been used as an important food source by North American indigenous peoples, though its commercial production has been limited.
Shepherdia argentea (silver buffaloberry) berries were traditionally used by Native Americans to treat stomach troubles and ceremonially to honor females entering puberty. They were typically eaten fresh, dried, or in jelly.
Like the Canada buffaloberry, S. argentea has been used historically as a food, medicine, and dye. Its various uses include treatment of stomach troubles and use in coming-of-age ceremonies for girls. In the Great Basin, the berries were eaten raw and dried for winter use, but more often cooked into a flavoring sauce for bison meat. The buffaloberry has been a staple food to some Native Americans, who ate the berries in puddings, jellies, and in raw or dried form.
The USDA Forest Service's ethnobotanical records document buffaloberry use across more than a dozen tribal nations of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains.
Parts of the plant as well as the berries have been used in traditional medicine to treat constipation, tuberculosis, sores, swelling, cuts, arthritis, venereal diseases, stomach troubles, fevers, broken bones, mosquito bites, sore eyes, acne, boils, stomach cancer, gallstones, toothaches, headaches, and as a gynecological aid, among other indigenous uses.
Traditional medicinal uses of buffaloberry documented by ethnobotanists include treatments for stomach ailments, as a mild laxative preparation, and in preparations to support recovery from illness.
The Navajo have been recorded making a lotion of ashes to soothe headaches, toothaches, and sore throats, and to heal a baby's navel. Other species of Shepherdia produce sweet, red berries that are eaten raw or cooked by many Native American tribes in soups, jellies, and other preparations, and are a critical component of pemmican, a dried meat and fat staple for winter months.
Trappers, pioneers, and others have used this berry since European colonization to produce tasty beverages, excellent jelly, and even catsup.
Buffaloberry plants produce fruits rich in carotenoid and phenolic antioxidants. Primary carotenoids were determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectral analysis and by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to be lycopene (0.27 ± 0.02 g/kg fresh weight) and methyl apo-6′-lycopenoate (MA6L; 0.32 ± 0.03 g/kg fresh weight).
MA6L comprised the greatest proportion (55%) of carotenoid antioxidants, but its role in human nutrition is still to be evaluated.
The berries also contain β-carotene and vitamin C.
The fruit contains high total phenolics concentrations (9.06 ± 0.71 g gallic acid equivalents per kg fresh weight). The polar constituents, mainly phenolic acids, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins, function as hypoglycemic agents and strong inhibitors of IL-1β and COX-2 gene expression.
All species of Shepherdia contain saponins in the berries, chemicals that foam in water and act as natural soap, giving the genus the common name soapberry. The substance that causes the buffaloberry to become frothy when beaten is saponin, which is utilized commercially as a foam producer and is thought to contribute to the fruit's bitter flavor.
New hydrolyzable tannins, shephagenins A and B, from Shepherdia argentea, have been investigated as HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. This finding, reported in the phytochemical literature, represents only preclinical, in vitro work and does not constitute clinical evidence of activity in humans.
Hydrophilic antioxidant capacity among 7 buffaloberry selections averaged 49.0 ± 6.6 mmol trolox equivalents per kg fresh weight, as measured by the ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assay.
Four wild berry species including Shepherdia argentea were evaluated for phytochemical composition and bioactive properties related to performance and human health. Biological activity was screened using a range of bioassays to assess potential effects on diabetic microvascular complications, hyperglycemia, pro-inflammatory gene expression, and metabolic syndrome symptoms. Non-polar constituents from berries, including carotenoids, were potent inhibitors of aldose reductase — an enzyme involved in the etiology of diabetic microvascular complications — whereas polar constituents, mainly phenolic acids, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins, were hypoglycemic agents and strong inhibitors of IL-1β and COX-2 gene expression.
Shepherdia argentea samples specifically showed the capacity to inhibit aldose reductase, improve glycogen accumulation, reduce the expression of both IL-1β and COX-2.
These mechanisms — aldose reductase inhibition, anti-inflammatory gene suppression, and glycogen-modulating activity — were demonstrated using in vitro bioassays. No controlled human clinical trials on buffaloberry fruit or extract as a dietary supplement have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature at this time.
Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro and compositional analysis only)
Buffaloberry plants produce fruits rich in carotenoid and phenolic antioxidants, which may have health benefits that may make buffaloberry commercially valuable. The characterization of lycopene, MA6L, total phenolics, and high FRAP antioxidant capacity is based on laboratory analyses of harvested fruit from Dakota-grown selections. No human intervention trials have tested antioxidant effects.
Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro bioassay)
A study evaluated four wild berry species integral to the traditional subsistence diet of Native American tribal communities, screening biological activity using bioassays that assessed potential effects on diabetic microvascular complications, hyperglycemia, pro-inflammatory gene expression, and metabolic syndrome. Non-polar constituents (including carotenoids) were potent inhibitors of aldose reductase, whereas polar constituents were hypoglycemic agents and strong inhibitors of IL-1β and COX-2 gene expression. These results are from cell-based screening assays; no human clinical trials have been conducted to confirm these effects in vivo.
Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro)
As described in the mechanisms section, buffaloberry extracts showed inhibition of COX-2 and IL-1β in vitro. The relevance to human inflammatory conditions has not been tested in clinical trials.
Evidence level: Traditional use documentation only; no clinical trial evidence identified
Traditional medicinal uses of buffaloberry documented by ethnobotanists include treatments for stomach ailments, as a mild laxative preparation, and in preparations to support recovery from illness. These uses are documented in ethnobotanical records and historical accounts, not in prospective clinical investigations.
No standardized clinical dosages have been established for buffaloberry or Shepherdia extracts in the peer-reviewed literature. The berries have been consumed as food in variable amounts; no therapeutic dosage recommendations appear in authoritative pharmacopeial monographs. Eating too many buffaloberries in any form causes diarrhea and may be fatal. No quantitative threshold at which gastrointestinal harm occurs has been precisely defined in the reviewed literature; traditional use emphasized moderation, particularly for raw consumption.
Buffaloberries have a content of toxic saponins. The fruit contains low concentrations of saponins. Although toxic, these substances are very poorly absorbed by the body and so tend to pass through without causing harm. They are also broken down by thorough cooking. Saponins are found in many plants, including several that are often used for food. It is advisable not to eat large quantities of food containing saponins.
Eating too many buffaloberries in any form causes diarrhea and may be fatal. Traditional practice consistently emphasizes consumption in moderation, and particularly that raw berries should be eaten only after frost and only in limited quantities.
No drug interaction data have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature for buffaloberry or its extracts. The plant has no established European Medicines Agency (EMA), WHO, or U.S. Pharmacopeia monograph as of current available records.
The buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is a highly adaptable livestock species, making it an important animal resource across diverse climatic regions worldwide. In addition to its role in draft labor, the buffalo is a vital source of both dairy and meat products, with buffalo milk accounting for approximately 15% of global milk production.
Water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) are distributed in 46 countries across 5 continents and hold significant importance within the livestock production system in various South Asian countries. Water buffaloes are native to Asia and Mediterranean regions and have a significant impact on economic profitability due to their valuable contributions through milk, meat, leather, and draft power.
Water buffaloes have two distinct sub-species — river buffalo and swamp buffalo — and are classified along with cattle within the family Bovinae; buffalo meat is traded as beef in the international market.
Buffalo-derived ingredients encountered in the dietary supplement and functional food literature include:
Non-thermal techniques, such as high-pressure processing and ultrasonication, show promise in modulating milk bioactivity. Buffalo milk is widely used in cheese, milk powder, chocolate, and dairy beverages.
Water buffalo have served as a foundational food animal in South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Mediterranean basin, and parts of Africa for millennia. Buffalo has been termed an important but "asset undervalued" by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2000).
In indigenous North American traditions, the American bison (Bison bison, colloquially also called "buffalo") occupies a central role in diet and culture. For countless generations, Buffalo sustained Indigenous communities and provided not only nourishment for the body, but also remedy for the spirit. Today, as efforts to restore the animal to lands and diets continue, its nutritional properties are being rediscovered.
Buffalo meat is lean without any marbling, is tender, low in fat, cholesterol, and energy. Buffalo meat is rich in iron, zinc, B-vitamins, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and has a lower atherogenic and thrombogenic index than meat from cattle.
Rich in high-quality protein and essential amino acids, buffalo meat supports optimal human nutrition. Its distinct advantages include subcutaneous fat distribution, making it a leaner choice, and a favorable fatty acid profile with reduced saturated fats and higher polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).
Compared to conventional beef, buffalo meat has 40% less cholesterol, 12 times less fat, 10% more minerals, 55% fewer calories, and 11% more protein.
Significantly lower fat and cholesterol content of buffalo meat relative to beef, and differences in fatty acid composition and minerals, have been highlighted. Higher conjugated linoleic acid and other bioactive peptide content in buffalo meat and their role in nutritional benefits to consumers have been described. Lower atherogenic index and health benefits of consuming buffalo meat over beef are noted in the literature.
One study analyzing minerals in meat from buffalo found micronutrients including iron, copper, zinc, and selenium. All samples had contents in micronutrients above USDA recommendations, confirming that 100 g of buffalo meat supplies the daily requirements of these micronutrients.
Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) milk is the second most important dairy source worldwide. It is characterized by a higher content of total solids, fat, protein, calcium, and phosphorus than Bos taurus and Bos indicus milk. Its physicochemical properties include high viscosity, buffer capacity, thermal stability, and a lower freezing point.
Compared with cow's milk, buffalo milk contains higher levels of casein proteins, such as αs1-casein, αs2-casein, β-casein, and κ-casein. Notably, the levels of αs2-casein and κ-casein are approximately twice as high as those in cow's milk.
Buffalo milk has higher concentrations of lipids, lactose, and minerals, with its fat content being nearly double that of cow's milk.
Buffalo milk is a reliable source of high-quality nutrients (dry matter: 16.10%, fat: 6.02%, protein: 4.61%). Leucine, lysine, and valine content were found to be high in buffalo milk and cheese.
Buffalo milk contains bioactive compounds such as peptides including δ-valerobetaine (δVB) and acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR), which participate in immunological, gastrointestinal, and endocrine processes.
Ruminants' milk contains δ-valerobetaine originating from rumen through the transformation of dietary Nε-trimethyllysine. HPLC-ESI-MS/MS analyses of bulk milk revealed that Italian Mediterranean buffalo milk contains δ-valerobetaine at levels higher than those in bovine milk.
Importantly, γ-butyrobetaine, the L-carnitine precursor, was detected in buffalo milk — previously undescribed in any milk. Buffalo milk shows higher levels of acetylcarnitine, propionylcarnitine, butyrylcarnitine, isobutyrylcarnitine, and 3-methylbutyrylcarnitine (isovalerylcarnitine) than cow milk.
δVB is an antioxidant compound naturally present in the milk of ruminants. It originates from the specific microbial transformation of Nε-trimethyllysine (TML) in the rumen.
The concentration of δVB is significantly higher in ruminant milk compared to non-ruminant milk, with buffalo milk containing the highest δVB levels among ruminants such as cow, sheep, and goat milk.
Significantly lower fat and cholesterol content of buffalo meat relative to beef and differences in fatty acid composition have been highlighted. Higher conjugated linoleic acid and other bioactive peptides content in buffalo meat and their role in nutritional benefits to consumers have been described. CLA has been investigated extensively in animal models and to a lesser extent in human studies for its potential role in body composition and cardiovascular risk, though the evidence base for CLA as a standalone supplement in humans remains mixed and is not specific to the buffalo-derived form.
Buffaloes provide consumers with a blend of low-fat, low-cholesterol, conjugated linoleic acid, and other bioactive peptide-rich meat with a lower atherogenic index and health advantages. The lower atherogenic index reflects a fatty acid ratio less likely to promote arterial plaque formation. Pasture-raised buffalo meat shows lower percentages of saturated fatty acids and higher proportions of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly n-3 PUFA, with an increased PUFA/saturated fatty acids ratio and decreased n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio.
Buffalo milk contains bioactive compounds δ-valerobetaine and acetyl-L-carnitine, which exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and health-promoting properties. D'Onofrio et al. investigated the protective effect of δVB-enriched buffalo milk on oxidative damage in endothelial cells induced by high glucose. This represents preclinical (cell-based) evidence.
Thermal treatments may reduce natural antimicrobial factors, while enzymatic hydrolysis can enhance antioxidant activity. Non-thermal techniques, such as high-pressure processing and ultrasonication, show promise in modulating milk bioactivity.
Evidence level: Limited observational human data and comparative nutritional analyses
In 2010, a longitudinal observational study assessed the impact of eating buffalo meat by dividing participants into three groups of 100 (non-consumers of buffalo meat, recent consumers, and regular consumers of buffalo meat). After 12 months, regular consumers had a better blood lipid profile with lower levels of total cholesterol and higher levels of HDL (good cholesterol) than non-consumers. This observational design does not establish causality, and the study has not been replicated in randomized controlled trials as of this review.
Meat from buffaloes reared in extensive pasture systems shows lower levels of cholesterol and higher amounts of α-tocopherol, associated with a higher hypocholesterolaemic/hypercholesterolaemic (h/H) ratio, lower index of atherogenic, lower levels of saturated fatty acids, and higher amounts of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Overall, meat from buffaloes raised in pasture production systems showed better lipid nutritional quality.
Evidence level: Compositional research; no formal clinical trial
Buffalo meat, derived predominantly from riverine buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), is gaining global recognition for its superior nutritional qualities. With lower fat, cholesterol, and calorie content compared to beef, it is regarded as one of the healthiest red meat options for human consumption. Rich in high-quality protein and essential amino acids, it supports optimal human nutrition.
One study confirmed that 100 g of buffalo meat supplies the daily requirements of micronutrients including iron, copper, zinc, and selenium based on USDA nutrient recommendations. These are compositional findings rather than results of clinical trials.
Evidence level: Pilot compositional study; preclinical in vitro evidence
A pilot study published in the Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics described differences in water buffalo milk and whey compared to dairy cow milk and whey when used as a dietary supplement. Detailed results of this pilot study were not available in the retrieved abstracts.
The health properties of milk from Mediterranean buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) are further attributed to its peculiar content in L-carnitine, betaines, and short-chain acylcarnitines, with ruminant milk (particularly buffalo milk) containing levels of δVB higher than those of γBB (about 106 μmol/L and 32 μmol/L, respectively).
Evidence level: In vitro only
δ-Valerobetaine (δVB), a constitutive metabolite of ruminant milk, is produced in the rumen from free dietary Nε-trimethyllysine. The biological role of δVB is poorly known. Its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential was tested in vitro during high-glucose-induced endothelial damage. No human trials have validated these in vitro findings in clinical outcomes.
No standardized supplemental dosages have been established for buffalo meat or milk products by any pharmacopeial authority or regulatory body. The 2010 observational study used groups of 100 participants classified as non-consumers, recent consumers, and regular consumers of buffalo meat, assessed over 12 months. No specific gram-per-day intake was reported in the available abstract of that study. Compositional analyses generally assess 100 g servings of meat as the reference unit, consistent with USDA nutrient database conventions.
Buffalo meat and milk are broadly recognized as foods with established safety profiles in the numerous cultures that consume them. The following are notable considerations identified in the scientific literature:
For buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea), the evidence base consists of: (a) well-characterized compositional analyses documenting high lycopene, MA6L, phenolic, and antioxidant content; and (b) preclinical in vitro bioassay data suggesting aldose reductase inhibition, anti-inflammatory gene suppression (COX-2 and IL-1β), and glycogen-modulating activity. No human clinical trials of buffaloberry or its extracts as a dietary supplement have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature. All therapeutic or health-benefit claims in this domain remain at the preclinical stage.
For water buffalo meat and milk, the evidence consists of: (a) extensive compositional research confirming nutritionally favorable profiles (lower fat, lower cholesterol, higher protein, higher micronutrients in meat; rich bioactive peptide content in milk including δVB and ALCAR); and (b) one small longitudinal observational study suggesting favorable blood lipid effects from regular buffalo meat consumption. Mechanistic studies on δVB are limited to in vitro models. No large randomized controlled clinical trials have been conducted on buffalo products as dietary supplements. The compositional superiority relative to beef does not by itself constitute clinical evidence of health benefit.
Health conditions that Buffalo may help support.
Body systems that Buffalo may help support.
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