Carrapicho

Carrapicho: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Nomenclature and Identity

The popular Brazilian name carrapicho is applied principally to two distinct medicinal plant species — Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (family Asteraceae) and Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC. (family Fabaceae) — whose sticky, bur-like fruits share the practical trait of clinging to clothing and animal fur. The two plants are entirely unrelated botanically, differ significantly in chemistry and pharmacology, and are associated with overlapping but non-identical sets of traditional and modern uses. This article covers both species, clearly distinguishing between them throughout.

1.1 Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (Carrapicho-de-carneiro / Bristly Starbur)

Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur, goat's head, hispid starburr, starbur) is an annual plant in the family Asteraceae, native to Central and South America. It is characterized by its upright or occasionally decumbent growth habit, reaching 15–100 cm in height with densely hairy stems and opposite, ovate to elliptic leaves that measure 2–12.5 cm long. It produces inconspicuous greenish-yellow flower heads, 4–5 mm across, in leaf axils, which mature into distinctive star-shaped burrs composed of 5–10 wedge-shaped achenes armed with hooked prickles and prominent spines up to 4 mm long.

In Brazil, where the plant is native, Portuguese common names include espinho de cigano (gypsy's thorn), carrapicho de cigano, and carrapicho, with regional variations such as amor-de-negro in Minas Gerais and espinho-de-carneiro or mata-cavalo in Rio Grande do Sul. In English-speaking areas, particularly in North America, it is commonly called goat's head or Texas cockspur, while in general usage it is referred to as bristly starbur, upright starbur, or star burr. In India, vernacular names include kaanthi in Hindi and kadle mullu in Kannada.

This plant is cited as a weed in cotton culture in Brazil and is also used as a medicinal plant. It is naturalized in many scattered places in Eurasia, Africa, and North America. The whole plant is very commonly employed in home therapeutics.

1.2 Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC. (Carrapicho / Amor-do-campo)

Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC. is a plant of the Fabaceae family especially rich in flavonoids but also in alkaloids, terpenoids, steroids, phenols, phenylpropanoids, glycosides, and volatiles. It is a sarmentous plant with stems more or less trailing and ascending at apex, pubescent but becoming glabrous when aged. The leaves are trifoliate, with lateral symmetrical leaflets, elliptical or oval, smaller than the terminal leaflet. The flowers are white, pink, or purple in colour and are organized in pairs. The fruit is a pod ending in a short tip, with 3 to 6 articles.

In Brazil, regional names for D. adscendens include amores do campo or carrapichinho in Mato Grosso, and pega-pega in São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. In Brazil it is easily found in the Northeast, Center West, and Southeast regions. Additional synonyms recorded include amor agarrado, beiço de boi, marmelada de cavalo, and trevinho-do-campo. Desmodium adscendens is native to the equatorial regions of Africa and Latin America.

2. Common Forms and Preparations

For Acanthospermum hispidum, all parts of the plant are used as medicine. Mostly juice and decoction are used internally for different disease conditions. Crushed herb is used in the form of a paste to treat skin ailments and leaf juice is used to relieve fever. In West Africa, the plant has been prepared as a tea extract and also as a leaf-juice swab for topical application.

For Desmodium adscendens, it is an herbaceous, perennial plant and the leaves and stems are the medicinal parts. The plant is widely used as juice or tea in various parts of the world against a wide range of diseases. Commercial preparations available in Europe and Brazil include dried leaf powder, standardized aqueous decoctions, hydroalcoholic tinctures, capsules, and tablets. In 2009, this plant was recognized as beneficial and of use in phytotherapy by the Ministry of Health of Brazil.

3. Traditional and Historical Use

3.1 Acanthospermum hispidum — Traditional Use

Traditionally, A. hispidum is used in the treatment of jaundice, vomiting, cephalgias, abdominal pain, convulsions, stomachache, constipation, eruptive fever, snake bite, epilepsy, skin ailments, cough, bronchitis, and blennorrhoea. It is used in some parts of South America as a diuretic.

In traditional medicine, West Africans have used Acanthospermum hispidum for the production of tea extracts useful in the treatment of jaundice. Furthermore, it is used in the treatment of herpes labialis, with the juice of the leaves being swabbed on the affected area. The therapeutic effect attributed to this application includes pain relief within one to three hours after application and reduction of the healing process to two to three days.

In parts of Brazil, decoctions of the whole plant were used in treating malaria-like fevers and as a postpartum uterine cleanser. The "espinho-de-cigano" plant (A. hispidum DC.) is used throughout northeastern Brazil as a folk medicine for asthma.

In India, around 33 tribes in 5 states are using this herb as medicine. Either the leaf or whole plant was being used in various conditions such as asthma, fever, bronchitis, diarrhea, malaria, liver disease, jaundice, arthritis, and migraine, and also used as an antimicrobial and anthelmintic. In Burkina Faso, the plant features prominently in the treatment of liver diseases. Acanthospermum hispidum DC is a medicinal plant that was selected from an ethnobotanical survey in 2014 that identified the medicinal plants used in the management of liver diseases by traditional medicine in Burkina Faso.

3.2 Desmodium adscendens — Traditional Use

Desmodium has been used as a medicinal plant for centuries, particularly in West Africa (Ivory Coast, Congo, Senegal, and Ghana) and in the rainforests of Peru and Brazil. This herb has been traditionally used in numerous countries all over the world for its pharmacological and biological properties, including use for the treatment of diarrhoeas, fever, epilepsy, asthma, leishmaniasis, gastroduodenal ulcer, diabetes, and hepatic diseases.

Desmodium adscendens is widely used for the treatment of asthma in Ghana, Africa. In Africa, its intensive use in traditional medicine to treat various liver problems, including viral hepatitis, is very common. The hepatoprotective use of Desmodium in West Africa attracted the attention of European researchers in the 20th century. The properties of desmodium were discovered by Dr. Pierre Tubéry in 1960 during his work at a dispensary in Cameroon, upon learning about the surprising results obtained with desmodium decoctions in the treatment of the icteric phase of viral hepatitis.

In traditional Brazilian medicine, desmodium leaves are given for diarrhoea, for pain in general, and for excessive urination — for example, in cases of cystitis when the bladder is cramped. Traditional preparations in the Caribbean and Peru include soaking the entire plant in rum as a cordial for backache relief, and boiling the whole plant in water and drinking the tea before meals for relief of backache, muscle pains, and kidney ailments.

4. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

4.1 Acanthospermum hispidum — Phytochemistry

The reported chemical composition of A. hispidum includes terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids, hydrocarbons, anthracene derivatives, and tannins. Sesquiterpenic lactones, including guaianolides, germacranolides, and melampolides, have been reported from the aerial parts of the Argentinian A. hispidum.

The most pharmacologically studied of these compounds is the sesquiterpene lactone acanthospermal B. The isolation and structure determination of acanthospermal A from Acanthospermum australe and acanthospermal B from A. hispidum DC. have been reported. Both compounds belong to the melampolide subgroup of germacradienolides. Acanthospermal A is the first sesquiterpene lactone to possess an α-hydroxyisobutyric acid ester side chain.

Chemical analyses of Acanthospermum hispidum have identified flavonoids — especially quercetin and kaempferol derivatives — which are known for anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Essential oils notably contain β-caryophyllene and α-humulene, contributing to antimicrobial and analgesic effects. Phytosterols have also been identified in the roots and are associated with the plant's respiratory applications. This biological property has been attributed to its phytosterol content.

4.2 Desmodium adscendens — Phytochemistry

The therapeutic phytochemicals in Desmodium adscendens include alkaloids of the family of indolic alkaloids, flavonoids (such as astragalin and cosmosin), soyasaponins (such as dehydrosoyasaponin), and the bioamine tyramine. The plant contains about 4 mg/kg of alkaloids expressed in tryptamine. Fatty acids are present to a concentration of about 3%, which is relatively rich in unsaturated acids.

Studies about the phytochemistry of D. adscendens showed that its main metabolites correspond to soyasaponins, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds (caffeic acid, quercetin, p-coumaric acid, epicatechin, and rutin) and simple heterocyclic alkaloids.

D. adscendens leaves are mainly composed of flavonoid compounds with 12.8 mg of catechin equivalent (CE)/g dry weight. The amounts of total polyphenol compounds are 11.1 mg of gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g dry weight.

A key constituent identified through targeted isolation is D-pinitol (3-O-methyl-D-chiro-inositol). D-pinitol, a carbohydrate with antihyperglycemic, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects, has been identified as a potentially active compound in D. adscendens. A phytochemical study using planar chromatography also revealed the presence of flavonoids such as vitexin and isovitexin, and soyasaponins such as soyasaponin I.

With respect to mechanisms of action, the triterpenoid glycosides (and other phytochemicals such as beta-phenylethylamines and tetrahydroisoquinolines) found in Desmodium adscendens are very potent potassium channel agonists. The triterpenoid saponins soyasaponin I, soyasaponin III, and especially dehydrosoyasaponin I were identified as the constituents responsible for the activation of calcium-dependent potassium channels, a mechanism expected to relax airway smooth muscle cells.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Respiratory System — Anti-asthmatic and Antispasmodic Activity (Desmodium adscendens)

This is the best-studied pharmacological area for Desmodium adscendens. The evidence base encompasses in vitro, animal, and some human observational data, though large-scale placebo-controlled clinical trials are absent.

Human/Clinical evidence: When the use of this plant against asthma was studied in Ghana, 1–2 teaspoons of dry powder given in 3 divided doses daily prevented asthma in an adult (Ampofo, 1977). The efficacy of this herbal medicine as claimed by the healers was also observed in clinical trials, since the aqueous and alcoholic extracts mostly suppressed asthmatic attacks in patients. These early Ghanaian observations remain the most direct human-level evidence; however, formal randomised, placebo-controlled trials have not been reported in the peer-reviewed literature.

Animal evidence: Desmodium adscendens, used by herbalists in Ghana for the treatment of asthma, is anti-anaphylactic in vitro. In vivo studies of its anti-anaphylactic property were undertaken using the guinea pig. The results show that both aqueous and ethanolic extracts of D. adscendens, when taken orally, reduce anaphylactic contractions, interfere with histamine-induced contractions, and reduce the amount of smooth muscle–stimulating substances released from lung tissue of guinea pigs. Studies have shown that butanolic extract inhibits contraction of the ileum and trachea in guinea pigs.

Evidence strength: Preclinical evidence is consistent across multiple animal model studies and mechanistically coherent with the soyasaponin/potassium-channel mechanism. Human evidence is preliminary: based on early observational reports rather than randomised controlled trials. The evidence is promising but insufficient to establish clinical efficacy by contemporary standards.

5.2 Hepatoprotective Activity (Desmodium adscendens)

In vitro and animal evidence: According to an in vitro study, soyasaponins I and III, dehydrosoyasagenin I, and soyasapogenol E protect liver cells from damage induced by hepatotoxic substances such as carbon tetrachloride with normalisation of hepatic transaminase levels, mainly ASAT. The protective effects against D-galactosamine-induced and ethanol-induced liver damage of a decoction of D. adscendens, quantified on its main constituent D-pinitol, were investigated in rats. In addition, the curative effects of pure D-pinitol and D. adscendens against chronic D-galactosamine-induced and acute acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in rats were studied. The aqueous decoction of D. adscendens showed a protective effect in rats against liver damage induced by D-galactosamine and ethanol, and this effect is at least in part due to the presence of D-pinitol. However, no curative effect of D. adscendens decoction or D-pinitol on liver damage induced by the tested chemicals could be demonstrated under all conditions studied.

Human/Clinical evidence: The effect of desmodium was evaluated in a clinical study carried out on 50 patients with viral hepatitis who received treatment with desmodium (3 times/day) for 45 days. The results show an efficacy of desmodium on the evolution of myalgia, jaundice, transaminases, bilirubin, and the negativation of the HBs antigen in half of the cases in 45 days in the context of viral hepatitis B. This study lacks a published randomised design and full peer-review documentation accessible in major databases, and results should therefore be treated with caution.

A patent has been taken on the use of Desmodium, especially D. adscendens, in the treatment of viral or chemically-induced hepatitis.

Evidence strength: Hepatoprotective activity is supported by mechanistically coherent in vitro and rodent data. The single clinical observational study in hepatitis B patients is intriguing but unconfirmed by adequately controlled trials. Overall evidence is preliminary to moderate.

5.3 Hepatoprotective Activity (Acanthospermum hispidum)

The ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the whole Acanthospermum hispidum plant were used to evaluate hepatoprotection. The hepatotoxin used was diethylnitrosamine. The animals were divided into groups of six, and the sera of treated animals were used for the determination of transaminases. Results of the in vitro antioxidant tests showed good antioxidant activity of the ethanolic extract using the DPPH test (0.08 ± 0.0018 μg/mL) and ABTS (246.05 ± 1.55 mmol TE/g). The in vivo tests showed that the ethanolic extract with the highest phenolic content had a good hepatoprotective capacity. The in vivo tests confirmed a good hepatoprotective capacity. The antioxidant activity of A. hispidum extracts would justify the observed hepatoprotective activity. These results confirmed that the plant is used in the treatment of liver diseases in traditional medicine in Burkina Faso.

Evidence strength: Animal and in vitro data only; no human clinical trials have been reported for A. hispidum in liver disease.

5.4 Antimicrobial Activity (Acanthospermum hispidum)

The ethanolic extracts of the leaves and flowering tops of Acanthospermum hispidum showed varying degrees of activity against a wide range of pathogenic bacteria. The activity resided mostly in the polar fractions of the alcoholic extract, being only slight in the non-polar fractions. No activity was observed for the aqueous extract of the fresh plant material.

The principal antibacterial compound identified is acanthospermal B. Acanthospermal B (AcB), the major sesquiterpene lactone of Acanthospermum hispidum, is a selective antibacterial agent against Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus, but inactive on Gram-negative bacteria and Lactobacillus. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the main microorganisms involved in human chronic infection. A BALB/c mouse skin infection model was developed to reproduce the lesions caused by acute and chronic MRSA infections. AcB at doses of 2.5 mg/kg produced a tenfold decrease in MRSA growth in skin infection. In addition, the same dose prevented the dissemination to liver and/or spleen.

Research was carried out to explore the biological and chemical properties of the crude extract of A. hispidum. Ethanol crude extract was prepared from aerial parts and investigated for antibacterial action against standard monoderm and diderm bacteria using the cup plate method.

Evidence strength: In vitro and mouse-model data only. No human clinical trials for antimicrobial applications have been published.

5.5 Antiparasitic Activity — Antiplasmodial and Antitrypanosomal (Acanthospermum hispidum)

The aim of one published study was to evaluate extracts from Acanthospermum hispidum used in traditional medicine in Congo Brazzaville for in vitro antiplasmodial activities against two laboratory strains of Plasmodium falciparum: the chloroquine-sensitive 3D7 and the chloroquine-resistant Dd2. ELISA HRP2 assay was used to evaluate the in vitro inhibitory activity of the extracts alone or in combination with chloroquine. Cytotoxicity was assessed on human HeLa cell line. Methanolic extract of Acanthospermum hispidum exhibited a strong and a moderate inhibitory activity on the growth of Dd2 and 3D7 at 2.8 μg/mL and 9.2 μg/mL concentrations respectively with a selectivity index >10.

The combination of the most active extract (methanolic extract of Acanthospermum hispidum) with chloroquine showed a synergistic interaction on both strains. The good selectivity index of Acanthospermum hispidum on HeLa cells reflects the safety of this plant.

A separate study evaluated A. hispidum against Trypanosoma brucei. Acanthospermum hispidum DC is a herbal species of the Asteraceae family that is endowed with rich phytochemicals with unknown mechanisms of antitrypanosomal effects. This study aimed to investigate the cellular mechanisms of antitrypanosomal and antioxidant activities of A. hispidum against Trypanosoma brucei, a causative protozoan species of African trypanosomiasis.

Antiplasmodial activity was evaluated in vitro against a chloroquine-sensitive strain of Plasmodium falciparum (3D7) using the measurement of the plasmodial lactate dehydrogenase activity, and in vivo against Plasmodium berghei berghei by the 4-day suppressive test. Selectivity of extract and purified compounds on Plasmodium parasites was evaluated using the MTT test on J774 macrophage-like murine cells and WI38 human normal fibroblasts, and also against two other parasites: Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Leishmania mexicana mexicana.

Evidence strength: Promising in vitro and preliminary in vivo (animal model) data. No human clinical trials in malaria or trypanosomiasis have been published. Further animal mechanistic studies and eventual human trials are needed.

5.6 Anticancer / Cytotoxic Activity (Acanthospermum hispidum)

Although A. hispidum was suggested as a promising antitumour phytomedicine, no studies had previously identified its potential cytotoxic components. One study isolated cytotoxic compounds of A. hispidum using chromatographic techniques guided by in vitro MTT cytotoxicity assay against selected cancer cell lines: breast cancer (MCF7), colorectal adenocarcinoma (HT29), and hepatoblastoma (HepG2). The selective index (SI) was assessed on MRC5 (normal human fetal lung fibroblast) cell line.

Evidence strength: Preliminary in vitro data only. No animal or human trials have been reported in oncology.

5.7 Antioxidant Activity (Both Species)

Both A. hispidum and D. adscendens demonstrate antioxidant activity in vitro. For A. hispidum, results of the in vitro antioxidant tests showed good antioxidant activity of the ethanolic extract using the DPPH test (0.08 ± 0.0018 μg/mL) and ABTS (246.05 ± 1.55 mmol TE/g).

For D. adscendens, one study determined the quality and quantity of polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and tannins in D. adscendens leaves by UV-spectrophotometry and RP-HPLC methods, and the antioxidant capacity was evaluated by ABTS, DPPH, and cellular tests. Crude extracts, fractions, and isolated components of Desmodium adscendens showed a wide spectrum of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities including antioxidant activity.

Evidence strength: In vitro evidence only; clinical relevance of antioxidant activity in vivo has not been established for either species.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

• Respiratory system: Anti-asthmatic, antispasmodic, and bronchodilatory properties — primarily D. adscendens, with some traditional use of A. hispidum for asthma, bronchitis, and cough.
• Hepatobiliary system: Hepatoprotective and anti-hepatotoxic activity documented for both species; D. adscendens has the more extensive research record including one human observational study in hepatitis B.
• Immune/allergic system: Anti-anaphylactic and histamine-modulating properties demonstrated for D. adscendens in guinea pig models.
• Parasitic/infectious disease: Antiplasmodial, antitrypanosomal, and antileishmanial activity demonstrated in vitro and in rodent models for A. hispidum.
• Antimicrobial: Activity against Gram-positive bacteria (notably MRSA, S. aureus, E. faecalis) shown in vitro and in mouse models for A. hispidum.
• Musculoskeletal/pain: Traditional use for muscle cramp, rheumatism, spinal pain, and backache — D. adscendens; attributed to smooth muscle relaxant action.
• Urinary system: Traditional use as a diuretic and for urinary tract complaints in both species.
• Gastrointestinal system: Traditional use for diarrhoea, stomach discomfort, vomiting, and constipation for both species.
• Nervous system: A. hispidum has been used traditionally for epilepsy and convulsions; D. adscendens has been used for epilepsy and CNS disorders, attributed in part to its alkaloid content.
• Metabolic: Hypoglycemic activity has been reported in animal models for both species; D-pinitol from D. adscendens has documented antihyperglycemic properties in vivo.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

No officially approved monograph dosages (e.g., WHO, EMA, ESCOP, or Commission E) have been established for either species as of the available literature. The following dosages are reported exclusively from study sources:

For Desmodium adscendens:

• 1–2 teaspoons of dry powder given in 3 divided doses daily for asthma prevention in an adult (Ampofo, 1977, Ghana).
• 3 times per day administration for 45 days in a clinical study of viral hepatitis patients.
• The prescribed dose dispensed at the Center for Plant Medicine Research in Ghana was 2.5 mg/kg body weight.
• In the rat hepatoprotection study, D. adscendens decoction and pure D-pinitol were given in a dose equivalent to 10 mg/kg/day D-pinitol, or up to 20 mg/kg/day as a pure compound daily.

For Acanthospermum hispidum:

• In the MRSA mouse model study, acanthospermal B at doses of 2.5 mg/kg produced a tenfold decrease of MRSA growth in skin infection.
• All parts of the plant are reported to be used as medicine, mostly as juice and decoction taken internally. No validated human dosing schedules are available.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

8.1 Desmodium adscendens

Oral administration of leaf extract of D. adscendens to white Wistar rats in an acute toxicity study allowed the estimation of an LD50 (median lethal dose) value of 1122 mg/kg body weight. In a subchronic toxicity study, the plant extract caused a decrease in zoxazolamine paralysis time and prevented thiopentone from causing sleep in test animals compared to controls.

The LD50 was estimated to be 1122 mg/kg body weight, which is about 450 times the prescribed dose dispensed at the Center for Plant Medicine Research (2.5 mg/kg body weight), making the leaf extract therapeutically safe enough for the treatment of diseased conditions.

Overall, the results are consistent with the plant extract being safe at the doses administered in humans. However, the induction of the CYP enzymes is an indication of a possible drug interaction when the plant extract is co-administered with other drugs. This CYP enzyme induction finding is clinically significant: by inducing cytochrome P450 xenobiotic-metabolising enzymes, D. adscendens extracts could potentially alter the metabolism and efficacy of pharmaceutical drugs metabolised by these enzymes, including antiretrovirals, immunosuppressants, anticoagulants, and other narrow-therapeutic-index medications. The specific CYP isoforms affected were characterised in the study but the clinical implications require further investigation.

The smooth muscle relaxant properties of D. adscendens — specifically the potassium-channel activating effect of its soyasaponins — raise a theoretical concern for additive effects when used alongside bronchodilators, antispasmodics, or antihypertensives, though this has not been formally studied in humans.

8.2 Acanthospermum hispidum

No reports of toxic effects were found in the in vitro and in vivo tests. After analyzing the articles, it was evidenced that other experiments with different models using animals are essential to evaluate the possible mechanisms of action of the extracts and compounds isolated of A. hispidum.

The "espinho-de-cigano" plant is used throughout northeastern Brazil as a folk medicine for asthma. Although little is actually known about the effectiveness and safety of this plant extract product, it is possible to find numerous medicines prepared from it in public health services or in stores selling natural products.

The sesquiterpene lactone acanthospermal B, the principal isolated antibacterial compound, has been evaluated in a mouse skin infection model without evidence of significant tissue toxicity at the tested dose. The abortifacient activity listed in traditional ethnobotanical records for A. hispidum (documented in pharmacological reviews) is a safety concern warranting caution in women of reproductive age, though direct human data on this effect are not available in the peer-reviewed literature examined.

9. Evidence Limitations and Research Gaps

Both carrapicho species have a substantial body of in vitro and preclinical (animal model) data, but well-designed randomised controlled trials in humans remain largely absent for virtually all claimed therapeutic applications. While preliminary findings are promising, robust clinical trials in humans remain limited. Few studies have directly evaluated carrapicho's safety and efficacy in controlled settings.

For D. adscendens, the most human-relevant evidence exists for asthma (1977 Ghanaian observational study) and hepatitis B (single uncontrolled cohort). The promising results should be further substantiated by clinical trials. For A. hispidum, phytochemical analysis, in vivo investigations using animal models, and later clinical trials in collaboration with traditional practitioners are necessary to clarify the potential activities.

Standardisation of plant material is also a recognised challenge: the many effects of the African medicinal herb Desmodium adscendens were studied in the 1980s and 1990s, but a comprehensive analytical protocol for the quality control of its constituents (soyasaponins, alkaloids, and flavonoids) has not yet been fully formulated and reported.

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