Chinatree

Chinatree (Melia azedarach L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Names, and Forms

1.1 Taxonomy and Botanical Names

Melia azedarach L., commonly known as the chinaberry tree, pride of India, bead-tree, Cape lilac, syringa berrytree, Persian lilac, Indian lilac, or white cedar, is a species of deciduous tree in the mahogany family, Meliaceae, that is native to Indomalaya and Australasia. The Linnaean binomial Melia azedarach is the accepted scientific name; the epithet "azedarach" derives from a Persian word meaning "noble tree." The most common name in English is chinaberry. Other names include Texas umbrella, white cedar, pride of India, Indian lilac, China tree, Chinese umbrella, chinatree, hoop-tree, bead-tree, cape lilac, cape syringa, and umbrella tree. In South Asia it is known locally as bakain or drek (Hindi), while in South America it is commonly known as paraiso or "paradise," and in parts of the United States as Indian lilac or white cedar. In traditional Chinese medicine its bark drug is called Ku-lian (苦楝) or Kulianpi.

Melia azedarach belongs to the family Meliaceae. Physically, it is a medium-sized deciduous tree reaching 7–12 meters high, with grey-brown bark and a spreading crown of finely divided pinnate leaves. The leaves are up to 50 centimetres long, alternate, long-petioled, two or three times compound (odd-pinnate); the leaflets are dark green above and lighter green below, with serrate margins. The flowers are small and fragrant, with five pale purple or lilac petals, growing in clusters. Chinaberry produces numerous yellow to yellow-green wrinkly drupe fruits that are about 0.4–0.5 inches in diameter.

Chinaberry tree is a perennial tree generally found in disturbed areas, road edges, and openings in forests or thickets. It is native to China, Japan, the Indian sub-continent, south-eastern Asia, and large parts of northern and eastern Australia. It is an ornamental species considered native to Asia that now grows from North to South America as well as Northern Australia, Africa, and Southern Europe.

1.2 Plant Parts Used and Common Preparations

Pharmacological investigations have attributed bioactivities to various parts of the plant, including leaves, bark, seeds, and roots. In Ayurveda it is traditionally used in the management of skin disorders, itching, wounds, fever, and parasitic infestations; the bark, leaves, fruits, and seeds are considered to possess detoxifying actions. Preparations found across traditional and research contexts include:

• Decoctions and aqueous extracts — prepared from bark or leaves by boiling in water, used orally or topically.
• Alcoholic/ethanolic extracts — solvent extracts used extensively in pharmacological research to isolate and test bioactive fractions.
• Leaf and bark powders — dried and ground plant material; the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India specifies guidelines for preparing root and leaf powders from M. azedarach.
• Partially purified peptide extracts (meliacine) — a partially purified extract called meliacine, prepared from the leaves of Melia azedarach, has been studied for antiviral properties.
• Fruit and seed extracts — used in insecticide and antimicrobial research; however, the fruits carry significant toxicity risk (see Safety section).
• Kulianpi (Cortex Meliae), the dry stem bark or root bark of Melia azedarach L., is officially listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and can be used as an anthelmintic. The bark is peeled in the spring or fall.

The tough, five-grooved seeds were once widely used for making rosaries and other products requiring beads, though in the modern era the seeds have often been replaced by plastics.

2. Traditional and Historical Uses

2.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine

According to classical Chinese medical texts, the herbs functioned as treatments for anxiety, destroying parasites, and promoting diuresis. According to Ben Cao Gang Mu (AD 1578), Melia azedarach could treat stomach ache and hernia. The ability to clear heat and promote diuresis was further reported in Ben Cao Jing Shu (AD 1625). According to the modern Chinese Pharmacopoeia, M. azedarach has been recorded as an insecticide and painkiller. In traditional Chinese medicine, Melia azedarach (Ku-lian) is used orally and topically as an antiparasitic and antifungal agent.

2.2 Ayurveda and Siddha (South Asia)

The tree has a rich history in traditional medicine, particularly in the Ayurveda and Siddha systems. Key compounds include meliacarpin, scopoletin, and flavonols, contributing to its biological activities. In Ayurveda, Maha Nimba (Melia azedarach), commonly known as Persian Lilac, is described in Ayurvedic texts for its potent Pitta–Kapha pacifying properties and is traditionally used in the management of skin disorders (Kushta), itching (Kandu), wounds (Vrana), fever (Jwara), and parasitic infestations. Its root is mainly used in painful conditions such as Gridhrasi (sciatica) in Ayurveda. The whole plant or its specific parts (leaves, stem, and roots) are known to have medicinal properties and have a long history of use by indigenous and tribal people in India.

2.3 Unani Medicine (Middle East and South Asia)

In Unani medicine, practiced in Arab countries, Melia azedarach is used as an antioxidative, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, rodenticidal, antidiarrhoeal, deobstruent, diuretic, antidiabetic, cathartic, emetic, antirheumatic, and antihypertensive.

2.4 Iranian Traditional Medicine

Melia azedarach, commonly known as Persian lilac or chinaberry, has long been recognized in Iran as a medicinal plant with a variety of medicinal effects, and is mentioned in ancient Iranian medical literature as Azad derakht. Persian lilac is widely distributed in northern forests of Iran and has been found to possess outstanding antifeedant, anti-insect, and cytotoxic activities.

2.5 Bangladesh, South-East Asia, and South America

Melia azedarach (locally called Ghoda Neem) is a highly significant medicinal plant found throughout Bangladesh. Traditionally, different parts such as leaf, flower, seed, fruit, and young branches have been used for the treatment of malaria, diabetes, purgative action, cough, and skin diseases. Botanical insecticides derived from chinaberry have been used for at least 2,000 years in Asia and the Middle East.

2.6 General Ethnobotanical Uses Across Cultures

Melia azedarach has been used as an abortifacient, an antiseptic, a purgative, a diuretic, and an insect repellent across various traditional systems. Its leaves and bark have traditional uses in Ayurvedic medicinal preparations, particularly for their antimicrobial and insect-repellent properties.

3. Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Overview of Chemical Classes

Various types of chemical compounds have been isolated and identified from different parts of genus Melia plants, including limonoids (triterpenoids), steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids, anthraquinones, and more. Phytochemical analyses have identified a plethora of secondary metabolites, such as limonoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds, contributing to its pharmacological efficacy.

3.2 Limonoids (Tetranortriterpenoids): The Primary Bioactive Class

Limonoids, as the vital bioactive chemical compounds in genus Melia plants, have attracted significant attention owing to their exclusive structural characteristics and remarkable biological activity. These compounds are classified into two categories: the ring-intact group and the ring-C-seco group. More than 200 limonoids have been isolated and identified from this genus.

The fundamental structure of limonoids is formed by the loss of four terminal carbons of the side chain in the apotirucallane or apoeuphane skeleton and then cyclized to form the 17β-furan ring; thus limonoids are also known as tetranortriterpenoids.

Key limonoids identified from M. azedarach include:

• Toosendanin — one of the paramount limonoids, considered the pivotal bioactive marker in both Melia toosendan and Melia azedarach. The antifeedant activity of toosendanin is significant; 0.01% toosendanin has been reported to produce a 100% antifeedant effect on Spodoptera litura.
• Meliatoxins A1, A2, B1, and B2 — tetranortriterpenes that are the most relevant toxic compounds identified in the fruits of this plant.
• Trichilin-type limonoids — including 12-deacetyltrichilin I, 1-acetyltrichilin H, 3-deacetyltrichilin H, together with meliatoxin B1, trichilin H, and trichilin D, isolated from the root bark.
• Meliacarpinin derivatives — found in leaves and including compounds such as l-Cinnamoyl-3-acetyl-11-hydroxy meliacarpin and Deacetyl salannin.
• 3-α-tigloyl-melianol and melianone — limonoids studied for antiviral properties (see Section 4.2).
• 28-Deacetylsendanin (28-DAS) — purified from the fruit of M. azedarach, has a hydrophobic structure and inhibited the replication of HSV-1 in a dose-dependent manner with an IC50 of 1.46 μg/ml without cytotoxicity.
• Azadirachtin-type limonoids — including 1-tigloyl-3,20-diacetyl-11-methoxymeliacarpinin and related compounds, isolated from root bark.

3.3 Flavonoids and Phenolics

Key compounds identified include meliacarpin, scopoletin, and flavonols, contributing to the biological activities of the tree. Roots also contain flavonoids such as apigenin-5-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, as well as steroids and trans-cinnamic acid. An Indonesian study reported the isolation of phenolics including kaempferol 7-O-rutinoside and 4-methoxyresorcinol from M. azedarach leaves, with kaempferol derivatives showing notable antiproliferative activities.

3.4 Alkaloids and Other Constituents

Other potentially toxic and pharmacologically relevant constituents include azadarin (an alkaloid), azaridine (a resin found in the fruit), parisine (a resin found in the leaves), margosinine (a resin found in the bark), meliotannic acid, and benzoic acid. The roots also contain the alkaloids Azecin-1, Azecin-2, Azecin-3, and Azecin-4.

3.5 Antiviral Peptide: Meliacine

Meliacine, a peptide isolated from the leaves of M. azedarach, exhibits potent activity against herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1). This partially purified leaf extract exhibits a potent antiviral effect against several viruses without displaying cytotoxicity.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Antimicrobial Activity

Preclinical evidence (in vitro): Seed extracts of M. azedarach are effective in controlling infections caused by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains. Petrol, benzene, ethyl acetate, methanol, and aqueous extracts at five different concentrations (1, 2, 5, 10, and 15 mg/mL) were evaluated using the disk diffusion method, and all extracts demonstrated significant antibacterial activity against tested pathogens. Among all extracts, the ethyl acetate extract revealed the highest inhibition.

In antibacterial activity studies, a methanolic extract of M. azedarach showed high activity against S. aureus (15 mm zone of inhibition at 50 µg/mL). Crude and petroleum ether extracts of M. azedarach leaves and bark were found to be of significant activity against Streptococcus mutans.

Antimycobacterial evidence (in vitro): The limonoid 3-α-tigloyl-melianol and methyl kulonate showed interesting antimycobacterial activity (with MIC values of 29 and 70 μM respectively) against Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Limitations: All antimicrobial evidence to date is from in vitro cell or disk diffusion assays. No human clinical trials of M. azedarach as an antimicrobial agent have been published. Evidence should be considered preliminary.

4.2 Antiviral Activity

In vitro evidence: The limonoids 3-α-tigloyl-melianol and melianone showed potent antiviral activity (EC50 in the range of 3–11 μM) against three important human pathogens belonging to the Flaviviridae family — West Nile virus, Dengue virus, and Yellow Fever virus. Mode of action studies demonstrated that these compounds were inhibitors of West Nile virus only when added during the infection, acting as inhibitors of viral entry or a very early event of the life cycle.

In vivo animal evidence (meliacine/HSV): A study evaluated the therapeutic effect of intravaginal administration of meliacine in a mouse model of genital herpetic infection. BALB/c female mice were infected with MS or G strains of Herpes Simplex Virus type 2 and then treated topically with meliacine. An overall protective effect was observed: animal survival increased, the severity of the disease was reduced, life span was extended, and virus shedding in vaginal fluids was diminished.

It was found that the treatment of HSV-1-induced ocular disease in Balb/c mice with meliacine significantly reduced the development of clinical disease as well as histological damage in corneas. Studies showed that meliacine diminished the synthesis of viral DNA and inhibited the spread of infectious viral particles.

Among several extracts of the fruit of M. azedarach, the methanolic extract had the highest antiviral activity on HSV-1 in Vero cells. 28-DAS, purified from the fruit, inhibited the replication of HSV-1 in a dose-dependent manner with an IC50 of 1.46 μg/ml without cytotoxicity.

Limitations: All antiviral research is preclinical (in vitro and animal models). The limonoids from M. azedarach are known as cytotoxic compounds against different cancer cell lines, while their potential as antiviral and antibacterial agents has been poorly investigated and may serve as a starting point for the development of novel drugs. No human clinical trials have been conducted.

4.3 Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Preclinical evidence: Phytochemical investigations of Melia azedarach fruits have led to the isolation of a novel tirucallane triterpenoid and several new limonoids, and their anti-inflammatory activities have been assessed in vitro. A compound designated compound 2 exhibited the most potent anti-inflammatory effect, with an IC50 value of 22.04 μM, attenuating LPS-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and reducing the levels of inflammatory mediators IL-6 and TNF-α.

Anti-inflammatory potential was examined through the red blood cell membrane stabilizing assay, yielding a result of 71.95% at 100 μg/ml. All these anti-inflammatory assays revealed noteworthy results that support the traditional use of Melia azedarach as medicine. However, further in vivo study is needed to confirm the therapeutic effect of the extract against inflammation.

Limitations: Anti-inflammatory data are confined to in vitro assays and limited animal studies. No randomized controlled human trials exist.

4.4 Anticancer / Cytotoxic Activity

In vitro evidence: A study was undertaken to investigate anticancer activity of M. azedarach in comparison with Azadirachta indica on cancer cell lines and also to evaluate their safety in humans by testing them on a normal cell line, and to determine the active components responsible for the medicinal effects. The methanolic extract from the aerial parts of M. azedarach inhibited MCF-7 cell lines at different concentrations (50, 100, 150, 200 µg/mL). The IC50 value of the solvent extract of M. azedarach on MCF-7 cells was 280.8989 µg/mL.

Research on M. azedarach sourced from Japan revealed trichilin-type limonoids, meliarachin C, and toosendanin, which exerted significant cytotoxicity against a HL-60 (leukemia) cell line with IC50 values of 0.65 and 0.005 µM, respectively.

Five new trichilin-type limonoids were isolated from the root bark of M. azedarach, and their cytotoxic activities against P388 cells in vitro were tested by means of MTT assay.

Limitations: Crude pulp and crude leaf extracts of Azadirachta indica, in contrast to M. azedarach, showed remarkably stronger anti-proliferative activity than those of M. azedarach. All anticancer evidence is in vitro. No human clinical studies testing M. azedarach as an anticancer agent have been published. The evidence is preliminary and exploratory.

4.5 Antidiabetic Activity

Preclinical evidence: A study assessed the anti-diabetic effects of Melia azedarach extract; the anti-diabetic activity was evaluated using the glucose uptake by yeast cells assay, which demonstrated 70.03% activity at a concentration of 100 μg/ml. An investigation of Himalayan medicinal plants including Melia azedarach examined their effects on stimulation of glucose uptake by C2C12 cultured cell lines, inhibitory effect on human recombinant Protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B (PTP-1B), and hypoglycaemic activity in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats.

Limitations: Antidiabetic data are from in vitro assays and animal models. No human clinical trials exist for this indication.

4.6 Hepatoprotective Activity

Preclinical evidence: Researchers measured parameters such as ALP, SGPT, SGOT, and serum bilirubin. They found that biochemical markers improved after treatment and histological changes, such as fatty change in liver cells and fibrosis in a CCl4-treated group, returned to normal levels. Research is underway for the identification of specific compounds responsible for the hepatoprotective effects.

Limitations: Hepatoprotective evidence is limited to preclinical (rodent) models. No human data are available.

4.7 Antiparasitic / Anthelmintic Activity

Classical Chinese texts describe these herbs as treatments for anxiety, for destroying parasites, and for promoting diuresis. According to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, M. azedarach has been recorded as an insecticide and painkiller. Modern preclinical data support anthelmintic activity; however, formally published, peer-reviewed human clinical trials specifically on oral anthelmintic dosing in humans are not currently established in the searchable literature.

4.8 Insecticidal and Pest-Control Activity

There is growing evidence that limonoids from genus Melia possess diverse pharmacological activities, especially anti-cancer effects, insecticidal activities, and anti-botulism effects. Triatoma infestans, the principal vector of Trypanosoma cruzi responsible for Chagas's disease transmission in Argentina, has been targeted with Melia azedarach extracts as pyrethroids have become common pesticides for the control of this insect but increasing resistance encourages the search for new alternatives. This is the best-characterized and most extensively studied area of activity for M. azedarach, with evidence from both laboratory and field studies.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

Based on the totality of traditional use records and preclinical research, Melia azedarach is associated with multiple body systems:

• Gastrointestinal system: Traditional use as an antidiarrhoeal, purgative, and anthelmintic; classical text references to stomach ache, hernia, and parasitic infestations.
• Immune/Antimicrobial: In vitro activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, antifungal effects, and antiviral activity (particularly against herpesviruses and flaviviruses in preclinical models).
• Integumentary (skin): Traditional use for skin disorders, wound care, and itching across Ayurvedic and folk traditions.
• Metabolic/Endocrine: Preclinical antidiabetic activity demonstrated via glucose uptake assays and PTP-1B inhibition studies.
• Hepatobiliary: Animal model evidence of hepatoprotective effects against CCl4-induced liver injury.
• Musculoskeletal and nervous system: Traditional use for sciatica (Gridhrasi) and analgesic applications; anti-inflammatory activity in cell and animal models.
• Oncology (preclinical): In vitro cytotoxic and antiproliferative activities against leukemia, breast cancer, and other cell lines. Pharmacological investigations have unveiled antidiabetic, anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antihyperlipidemic, and hepatoprotective effects, among others.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Research

The following dosages and forms appear specifically in source-cited studies. No safe therapeutic human dosage range for Melia azedarach as a dietary supplement has been established by a recognized regulatory or pharmacopoeial body.

• Antibacterial seed extract studies: Petrol, benzene, ethyl acetate, methanol, and aqueous extracts at five different concentrations (1, 2, 5, 10, and 15 mg/mL) were evaluated in disk diffusion assays.
• Anti-inflammatory in vitro: Anti-inflammatory potential was examined at 100 μg/mL in a red blood cell membrane stabilizing assay.
• Antidiabetic in vitro: Glucose uptake activity was assessed at a concentration of 100 μg/mL.
• Anticancer in vitro: Methanolic extracts were tested at concentrations of 50, 100, 150, and 200 µg/mL against MCF-7 cell lines, yielding an IC50 of approximately 280.9 µg/mL.
• Antiviral (28-DAS, in vitro): 28-DAS inhibited HSV-1 replication with an IC50 of 1.46 μg/mL without cytotoxicity in cell assays.
• Antiviral (flavivirus limonoids, in vitro): 3-α-tigloyl-melianol and melianone showed antiviral activity with EC50 in the range of 3–11 μM against West Nile, Dengue, and Yellow Fever viruses.
• Chinese Pharmacopoeia anthelmintic (traditional dosing reference): Kulianpi (the dry stem or root bark) is officially listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. The bark is peeled in spring or fall for anthelmintic use. Specific gram dosages as listed in the Pharmacopoeia were not reported in the available sources.

7. Safety Considerations and Known Toxicology

7.1 Toxicity of Fruits and Seeds in Humans

The fruits are poisonous or narcotic to humans if eaten in large quantities. According to Chinese medical literature, human poisoning can occur if 6–9 fruits, 30–40 seeds, or 400 grams of bark are eaten. The toxins include neurotoxins and unidentified resins, found mainly in the fruits.

In the Chinese medical literature, human poisoning is said to occur if six to nine fruits, 30 to 40 seeds, or 400 g of the bark is consumed. Onset of symptoms typically occurs within 4–6 hours, but as short as 0.5 hours has been documented. In reported patient cases, the onset was variable, ranging from a few hours to up to 3 weeks after consumption of the herb.

Neurological symptoms were the major manifestation in four reported cases: weakness, myalgia, numbness, and ptosis. Treatment was symptomatic and supportive; all patients recovered without sequelae.

M. azedarach poisoning may result in gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, respiratory, or neurological effects, and death in severe cases.

The first symptoms of poisoning appear a few hours after ingestion. They may include loss of appetite, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea, bloody feces, stomach pain, pulmonary congestion, cardiac arrest, rigidity, lack of coordination, and general weakness. Death may take place after about 24 hours.

7.2 Principal Toxic Compounds

The principal toxins responsible for animal poisonings are a group of tetranortriterpenes of the cytotoxic limonoid class, known as meliatoxins A1, A2, B1, and B2. These meliatoxins are concentrated in the fruit and act as enterotoxins and neurotoxins. Other potentially toxic limonoids have been isolated from the fruit and seeds, and additional potentially toxic constituents include azadarin (an alkaloid), azaridine (a resin found in the fruit), parisine (a resin found in the leaves), margosinine (a resin found in the bark), meliotannic acid, and benzoic acid.

To date, at least 20 different limonoids have been isolated from various parts of M. azedarach. However, it is still not known which limonoids are responsible for human toxicities.

7.3 Toxicity in Animals

Tetranortriterpenes such as meliatoxin A1, A2, B1, and B2 are the most relevant toxic compounds identified in the fruits. Poisoning mainly affects pigs due to ingestion of the fruits, and is rarely reported in cattle. Intoxication occurs by ingesting ripe fruits when they fall on the ground or when branches are within reach of animals. Affected animals virtually show two syndromes: one characterized by nausea, vomiting, constipation, or diarrhea (often bloody); and another characterized by excitement or depression and dyspnea, followed by death.

In pig studies, meliatoxin caused severe rapid muscular contraction that degenerated to spasmodic quivering, tachycardia, hypothermia, coma, and death at about 30 hours; the oral LD50 in pigs is 6.4 mg/kg.

7.4 The Dual Nature of Limonoids: Medicinal vs. Toxic

Although the use of Melia azedarach extracts as natural bio-based products is an interesting approach, the limonoids with desired insecticidal properties may also be present alongside limonoids toxic to mammals. This dual nature means that crude, uncharacterized extracts of M. azedarach carry a fundamentally different risk profile from well-characterized fractions. Limonoids, particularly toosendanin, are also found to exhibit non-negligible toxic effects, a finding that needs further research.

7.5 Abortifacient Properties

Melia azedarach has historical use as an abortifacient across multiple traditional systems. This property has been noted in ethnobotanical literature and represents a specific safety concern for use during pregnancy.

7.6 Absence of Regulatory Approval and Established Human Dosing

No regulatory body—including the U.S. FDA, European Medicines Agency (EMA), or the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)—has approved Melia azedarach as a safe dietary supplement ingredient with established human dosing guidelines. No specific controlled toxicokinetic studies have been done in animals for chinaberry poisoning. The tree's bark drug (Kulianpi) appears in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia as an anthelmintic, but this reflects its use within a regulated traditional medicine framework under practitioner supervision, not over-the-counter supplementation. Further research is warranted to elucidate mechanisms of action, optimize dosage regimens, and assess safety profiles for clinical applications.

References

• ScienceDirect Topics: Melia Azedarach — an overview (Clinical Veterinary Toxicology, 2004)
• Wikipedia: Melia azedarach
• Frontiers in Pharmacology / PMC: Limonoids From the Genus Melia (Meliaceae): Phytochemistry, Synthesis, Bioactivities, Pharmacokinetics, and Toxicology (2021)
• Frontiers in Pharmacology: Limonoids From the Genus Melia (Meliaceae) — full text (2021)
• PMC: Limonoids from Melia azedarach Fruits as Inhibitors of Flaviviruses and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (2015)
• PMC: Antibacterial efficacy of the seed extracts of Melia azedarach against human pathogenic bacterial strains
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• PMC: In-vitro phytochemical and pharmacological bio-efficacy studies on Azadirachta indica and Melia azedarach for anticancer activity (2020)
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• PMC (Frontiers in Veterinary Science): Repellent and Lethal Activities of Extracts From Fruits of Chinaberry Against Triatoma infestans (2018)
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