Dendramine

Other Names

6-Oxydendrobine

Synopsis

Dendramine: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity

1.1 Chemical and Botanical Identity

Dendramine is a naturally occurring sesquiterpenoid alkaloid. Its chemical name is 6-oxydendrobine, and it was characterised as the fourth and fifth alkaloid identified from Dendrobium nobile. The definitive structure was described in the Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin in 1966 by Toshihiko Okamoto, Mitsutaka Natsume, Tadamasa Onaka, Fumihiko Uchimaru, and Masao Shimizu of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo.

The structure of dendramine was identified independently by two groups, Toshihiko Okamoto and Yasuo Inubushi, both publishing in 1966. It belongs to the dendrobine-type alkaloid class, a group of sesquiterpenoid nitrogen-containing compounds structurally related to, but distinct from, the closely studied alkaloid dendrobine. Dendrobine itself is a sesquiterpene alkaloid that makes up 92.6% of the total alkaloid fraction (DNLA) of D. nobile, and it is regarded as the standard agent for qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the species.

1.2 Natural Source: The Genus Dendrobium

Dendramine is extracted from the genus Dendrobium, one of the largest genera in the orchid family (Orchidaceae). The genus comprises approximately 1,500–2,000 species distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and North Australia, of which 74 species and 2 varieties are native to China. The primary source species is Dendrobium nobile Lindl., but the alkaloid is also present in related species.

Alkaloids are extracted and isolated from the dried stems of Dendrobium, and the alkaloid fraction contains mainly dendrobine, dendrobine-N-oxide, nobilonine, dendroxine, 6-hydroxy-nobilonine, 13-hydroxy-14-oxodendrobine, mubironine, 6-hydroxynobiline, dendramine, N-trans-cinnamoyltyramine, N-trans-feruloyltyramine, N-cis-feruloyltyramine, N-trans-p-coumaroyltyramine, dendrine, N-isopentenyldendrobinium-bromide, and adenosine.

Four species — Dendrobium nobile Lindl, Dendrobium chrysotoxum Lindl, Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo, and Dendrobium fimbriatum Hook — have been included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia.

1.3 Common Names and Related Nomenclature

The parent plant is known in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as Shi Hu (石斛), specifically Dendrobii caulis (the dried stem). Known as shi hu or shi hu gen, this herb is used because of its tonic, nourishing, and replenishing properties. In pharmacological literature, the collective alkaloid extract of D. nobile is commonly abbreviated as DNLA (Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Alkaloids). Dendramine is listed individually in phytochemical databases such as the USDA Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases under the identifier "DENDRAMINE."

1.4 Common Forms and Preparations

Dendramine itself is not typically sold as an isolated single-compound supplement. It is encountered as a constituent of broader Dendrobium extracts. Dendrobium alkaloids are isolated by the traditional alkaloid extraction method given their basic chemical structure; dried powders of Dendrobium spp. are liquid-liquid extracted with various solvents, such as ethanol, methanol, or chloroform, then fractionated successively with water, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, n-butyl alcohol, and similar solvents.

In modern commercial contexts, Dendrobium extract — which contains dendramine alongside other alkaloids and polysaccharides — is available in standardised powder form. In the modern market, Dendrobium extract is typically available in specifications such as 10:1, 20:1, or standardised extracts containing 10%–30% polysaccharides, and generally appears as a light yellow to brown powder soluble in water and sometimes in ethanol, depending on the extraction solvent used. A traditional method to process Dendrobium is to soak fresh stems in an ethanol solution, which is the most important factor to ensure high yields of aqueous-extractable polysaccharides.

Dendrobium is now an ingredient in some pre-workout dietary supplements marketed to enhance physical or athletic performance. It is widely used as a raw material in dietary supplements, herbal formulations, and health products that focus on energy enhancement, immune support, and overall wellness.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine

Dendrobium Sw. has been used for thousands of years in China as a precious traditional Chinese medicine; it is derived from the stems of various Dendrobium plants and has the functions of nourishing Yin and clearing heat, activating water and nourishing the stomach, and moistening the lung and relieving cough.

The earliest records of Dendrobium utilisation in China appear in the Shen Nong's Herbal Classic (the Eastern Han Dynasty), written nearly 2,300 years ago. This text records its ability to strengthen "Yin", tonify the five viscera, nourish the heart, remove arthralgia, relieve fatigue, thicken the stomach, lighten the body, and prolong life span.

In the Variorum of Classic of Herbology (Liang Dynasty, A.D. 502–557), the appearance of D. officinale was described as rough, fine, and solid with a golden colour. In Records of Famous Doctors (Weijin Dynasty, A.D. 220–450), D. officinale was recorded to be non-toxic and could be widely used to nourish the essence, reinforce the kidney, calm the stomach, build muscles, expel evil heat, relieve foot and knee pain, and remove convulsion.

The Compendium of Materia Medica (also known as Bencao Gangmu), a Chinese herbology volume written by Li Shizhen during the Ming Dynasty, also recorded that Dendrobium has the effect of removing arthralgia, lowering "qi", strengthening yin, and nourishing essence.

In TCM, Dendrobium is used to treat various health conditions such as respiratory and digestive disorders, providing immune support and helping with physical endurance and skin health. D. nobile is associated with the Stomach, Kidney, and Lung meridians.

2.2 Traditional Use Across Cultures and Preparation Methods

Dendrobium is a member of the orchid (Orchidaceae) family and has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for many centuries to treat thirst, fever, diabetes, infection, inflammation, cancer, protect eyesight, and improve appetite and digestion.

Both the flowers and stems of Dendrobium are edible; in Thailand, they are deep-fried and eaten as snacks, while in Nepal, the flowers are pickled. In TCM, Dendrobium is well known as a Lung, Stomach, and Kidney Yin tonifying herb.

In China, Dendrobium nobile Lindl has been used as an ingredient for nutraceutical beverages and food products for thousands of years. Preparation in the Chinese tradition historically included decoctions of the dried stems, as well as fresh stem preparations. In traditional Chinese medicine, "Shihu" is a valuable traditional Chinese medicine derived from the fresh or dry stems of various Dendrobium plants.

The historical use of Dendrobium dates back more than a thousand years in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is recorded in ancient texts such as the Shennong Bencao Jing and Bencao Gangmu. It was traditionally used to nourish the Yin, relieve dryness, enhance body fluids, and support longevity and vitality. Because of its reputation as a rejuvenating herb, it has been regarded as one of the "Nine Immortal Herbs" in Chinese herbal culture.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Phytochemical Profile of the Source Plant

The stems of D. nobile contain alkaloids, polysaccharides, sesquiterpenes, phenanthrenes, benzenes, and other chemical components. Among them, alkaloids and polysaccharides have been regarded as the main active constituents, with dendrobine the characteristic component. As many as 213 compounds have been isolated from D. nobile, and 101 compounds have been identified from the flowers of D. nobile via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

The stem is the primary component of D. nobile used in traditional medicine, and it contains the highest concentration of bioactive compounds. The main constituents found in the stem are alkaloids, including dendrobine, dendroxine, dendramine, dendrine, dendrobine N-oxide, nobilonine, dendrochrysine, and moscatiline. These alkaloids are primarily responsible for the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects. The stems also contain polysaccharides, such as dendronan and glucans, which exhibit immunomodulatory and antitumour activities.

3.2 Dendramine as a Specific Compound

Dendramine (6-oxydendrobine) is a sesquiterpenoid alkaloid within the dendrobine-type subclass. Alkaloids are the first compounds isolated and purified from Dendrobium and are also important active components of Dendrobium. They have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antioxidant, anti-anxiety, anti-inflammatory, and antidepressant properties, as well as neuroprotective effects.

A mixture of dendrobine, dendramine, and noliboline isolated from a member of the genus Dendrobium Sw. (family Orchidaceae) at a dose of 0.2 mg/L protected neurons by 38.6% against apoptosis imposed by deprivation of glucose and oxygen, by reducing the cytoplasmic concentration of Ca²⁺, maintaining mitochondrial integrity, and reducing levels of activated caspase 3.

The alkaloids of Dendrobium nobile Lindl. (DNLA) are considered to have beneficial effects on liver metabolism, hepatic lipid homeostasis, neuronal activity, and resistance effects on tumors, cancers, and viruses based on previous studies.

3.3 Other Major Co-occurring Bioactive Compounds

Polysaccharides have been found to be one of the main active components in Dendrobium plants, displaying antitumor, antiviral, immunomodulatory activities, and hepatoprotective effects. Modern phytochemical studies show that the main components of Dendrobium include alkaloids, polysaccharides, terpenoids, diphenylbenzene, and phenanthrenes.

Dendrobium contains components such as alkaloids, flavonoids, bibenzyls, terpenes, phenanthrenes, steroids, lignans, and polysaccharides that have important pharmacological properties. Phenolic compounds, such as bibenzyls and phenanthrenes, have been isolated from the roots and demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties.

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Neuroprotective Mechanisms

Substantial preclinical studies indicate that DNLA (the alkaloid fraction in which dendramine appears alongside dendrobine and other compounds) is a promising molecule to counteract various pathophysiological processes of Alzheimer's disease, by improving cognitive functions and inhibiting neurodegeneration. The underlying mechanisms are related to inhibition of the production of Aβ plaques and tau protein hyper-phosphorylation, as well as suppressing neuroinflammation and apoptosis and activating autophagy.

DNLA protects hippocampus neurons and working memory against LPS-induced neurotoxicity, suppresses cell membrane lysis and cell swelling, inhibits the essential mediator of pyroptosis GSDMD-N expression, and mediates neuroprotection via inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation, reducing pro-inflammatory factor (IL-18 and IL-1β) production.

DNLA is capable of improving cellular mitochondrial respiration function and reducing cell injury; the activation of PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy may be an important cellular event by which DNLA executes its cytoprotective mode of action.

4.2 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Dendrobium nobile exhibits anti-inflammatory effects, and its anti-inflammatory actions are mediated through multiple pathways. DNLA can inhibit lipopolysaccharide-induced astrocyte activation and reduce the production of pro-inflammatory factors such as interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α.

4.3 Hepatoprotective Mechanisms

Studies have demonstrated that Dendrobium polysaccharides can reduce liver pathological damage in vivo and in vitro through inhibiting toxicant-induced macrophage infiltration, decreasing MDA levels, and down-regulating inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α. Recent studies have shown that Dendrobium alkaloids also play a role in protecting the liver.

4.4 Antidiabetic Mechanisms

The anti-oxidant and lipid-lowering effects of Dendrobium modulate hyperlipidaemia via reducing lipid accumulation and maintaining lipid metabolism. Restoring pancreatic beta cells and regulating the insulin signalling pathway are involved in its antidiabetic properties.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

Important note on evidence quality: Virtually all pharmacological research involving dendramine has been conducted on the broader alkaloid fraction of D. nobile (DNLA), or on mixed alkaloid/polysaccharide extracts, rather than on isolated dendramine. No published human clinical trials focus specifically on dendramine as an isolated compound. Evidence is therefore attributed to the parent plant's alkaloid extract and should be understood as representing the phytochemical context in which dendramine naturally occurs.

5.1 Neuroprotection and Cognitive Function

Preclinical (in vitro and animal) evidence: This is the most actively researched domain. Compounds from D. nobile alkaloids were found to show a protective effect against amyloid-β(1-42)-induced neurotoxicity in rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells, with dendrobine exhibiting the most significant neuroprotective effect.

DNLA, the active ingredients of the traditional Chinese medicine Dendrobium, has been shown to have anti-oxidative effects, anti-inflammatory action, and protective effect on neurons against oxygen-glucose deprivation. Whether DNLA reduces amyloid-beta (Aβ)-induced neuronal injury was investigated by treating cortical neurons with DNLA at different concentrations (0.025, 0.25, and 2.5 mg/L) for 24 hours, followed by administration of Aβ25–35 (10 μM).

Previous studies have shown that DNLA can exert neuroprotective effects, such as improvements of memory and cognitive impairment induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In recent years it has been demonstrated that DNLA is able to decrease oxidative stress and improve mitochondrial function.

Human clinical evidence: The neuroprotective effects of Dendrobium nobile Lindl alkaloid have not been studied in patients. This represents a critical gap; all available neuroprotective data derive from animal models or cell culture experiments.

5.2 Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects

The strong antioxidant activity and ability to scavenge free radicals in D. nobile have been shown to support immune-modulating, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. Experimental studies have shown that Dendrobium officinale and its bioactive compounds exert multiple biological properties like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immune-regulatory activities.

Studies have shown that the alkaloids isolated from Dendrobium have neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antitumour activities, showing that these alkaloids with potential medicinal activity are important sources of lead compounds in innovative drug development. These findings are, however, predominantly preclinical.

5.3 Anticancer Properties

Dendrobium nobile displays promising anticancer, antidiabetic, cardiovascular, renoprotective, hepatoprotective, and wound-healing properties. Extensive research has identified numerous bioactive compounds, including alkaloids, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, polysaccharides, and glycosides, that contribute to their therapeutic potential.

The strong antitumour activity of the extract from D. nobile has made it a hot research object in recent years. Evidence remains at the preclinical stage; no human clinical trials examining dendramine or DNLA specifically for cancer have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature.

5.4 Antidiabetic and Metabolic Effects

Increasing pharmacological studies have found that Dendrobium officinale has high nutritional and medicinal value, including antioxidant, immune-regulatory, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, and hepatoprotective activities.

Dendrobium, the second-largest orchid genus, has been used as a natural source of drugs for the treatment of metabolic syndrome. The beneficial effects of Dendrobium, including anti-hypertension, anti-hyperglycaemia, anti-obesity, and anti-hyperlipidemic effects against metabolic syndrome, have been shown in scientific evidence. Again, this evidence is predominantly from animal models and in vitro studies.

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. has been used in traditional Chinese medicines to treat senile nervous system diseases such as obesity, hyperglycaemia, and hyperlipidaemia, and their remarkable curative effect has been supported by clinical trials. However, the referenced clinical trials concern the broad plant extract or polysaccharide fractions rather than dendramine specifically.

5.5 Hepatoprotective Effects

Dendrobium and the active ingredients of Dendrobium display hepatoprotective effects in various liver disorders. A great number of studies have shown that Dendrobium and its active ingredients play significant biological roles through distinct mechanisms such as anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation, activation of autophagic flux, and regulation of metabolism.

Evidence for hepatoprotection is preclinical (in vitro and rodent model). No controlled human clinical trials specifically assessing dendramine's isolated hepatoprotective effect have been identified.

5.6 Athletic Performance

Dendrobium is now an ingredient in some pre-workout dietary supplements marketed to enhance physical or athletic performance. However, little evidence indicates that dendrobium is effective for this purpose. There have been some claims that dendrobium extracts can contain phenylethylamines (PEAs), a type of stimulant that can have effects similar to those of amphetamines. So far, however, no reliable evidence indicates that PEAs occur naturally in any dendrobium species, which suggests some dendrobium-containing products may have been adulterated.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

Based on available preclinical and traditional evidence, dendramine — as a constituent of Dendrobium alkaloids — is associated with the following body systems:

Central nervous system: Bioactive compounds from D. nobile can protect neurones, enhance cognitive function, and improve memory.
Immune system: The immunomodulatory properties of D. nobile enhance immune function and promote a balanced immune response.
Liver / hepatic system: Recent studies have shown that Dendrobium alkaloids play a role in protecting the liver.
Metabolic / endocrine system: Pharmacological effects of D. nobile appear mainly as anti-tumour, anti-ageing, immune enhancing, hypoglycaemic, and anti-cataract activities.
Digestive system: The fresh or dried stem of many Dendrobium species are regarded as a "superior grade" tonic for benefiting the stomach and promoting the production of body fluids.
Respiratory system: Dendrobium is used to treat respiratory and digestive disorders.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

No standardised dosage for isolated dendramine has been established in human clinical guidelines. Dosage information in the scientific literature refers to the alkaloid extract mixture (DNLA) or whole-plant preparations rather than purified dendramine. The following dosages have been reported in specific research contexts:

In vitro neuroprotection study (cortical neurons): Cortical neurons were treated with DNLA at different concentrations (0.025, 0.25, and 2.5 mg/L) for 24 hours, followed by administration of Aβ25–35.
In vitro neuroprotection (mixed alkaloids including dendramine): A mixture of dendrobine, dendramine, and noliboline at a dose of 0.2 mg/L protected neurons by 38.6% against apoptosis imposed by deprivation of glucose and oxygen.
Rodent LPS-induced dementia model: Prevention of LPS-induced dementia in rodents in the Morris water maze was observed at a dose of 80 mg/kg with concomitant reduction of hippocampal TNF-α receptor type 1.
Animal acute toxicity study (D. moniliforme aqueous extract): The test article was orally administered once by gavage to male and female rats at doses of 0, 2,500, and 5,000 mg/kg body weight.

If Dendrobium nobile is part of a proprietary blend in a commercial supplement, there is no way to tell how much dendrobine — or by extension, dendramine — is present without laboratory testing.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 General Toxicity Profile

The safety and toxicity profile of D. nobile are crucial for ensuring its safe use in various applications. Animal models have demonstrated low acute and subacute toxicities of D. nobile extract, with no notable adverse effects on clinical signs, organ function, or histopathology.

A single oral dose of Dendrobium moniliforme aqueous extract (DMAE) did not induce any adverse effects in Sprague-Dawley rats at a dose level of 5,000 mg/kg or less, and the minimal lethal dose (LD10) can be considered to be over 5,000 mg/kg body weight for both sexes.

In general, D. nobile is considered harmless to humans. As a natural plant product, Dendrobium officinale poses little toxicity and side effects to human health, and it could combine with other herbal medicines in Chinese medicine decoction for the treatment of diseases.

8.2 Genotoxicity

Dendrobium nobile extracts were subjected to genotoxicity testing to determine the likelihood of DNA damage. Available research indicates that there are no genotoxic effects, implying a low risk of DNA injury with its use.

8.3 Known Adverse Effects at Higher Doses

Dendrobium nobile herb is of very low toxicity and clinically tends to be considered non-toxic in regular dosage. However, overdose may cause convulsions, which can be relieved by sodium amytal. Additionally, it has clinically been reported to have induced allergic dermatitis.

Dendrobine, the dominant alkaloid with which dendramine co-occurs, taken in sufficient amounts can slow breathing and heart rate and cause an unsafe drop in blood pressure. If Dendrobium nobile is part of a proprietary blend, there is no way to tell how much dendrobine is present without laboratory testing. Therefore, Dendrobium as a dietary supplement ingredient may pose health risks, including convulsions, seizures, or low blood pressure.

8.4 TCM Contraindications

From the perspective of traditional Chinese medicine, Dendrobium nobile should not be used in cases of unimpaired yin in the early stage of febrile disease, damp-warm disorders that have not yet transformed into dryness, and deficiency-cold in the spleen.

8.5 Allergenicity

Limited information is available regarding the allergenic potential of D. nobile. Additional research is required to evaluate the allergenicity and potential adverse effects of this substance on individuals with known allergies.

8.6 Caution at Higher Dosages

In Chinese research, its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects have positioned D. nobile as a potential therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative diseases; however, caution is advised at higher dosages.

8.7 Long-term Safety Data Gap

More research, such as clinical studies and post-marketing surveillance, is needed to determine the long-term safety of D. nobile in humans and the side effects that might occur.

9. Evidence Strength: Summary Assessment

The available scientific evidence for dendramine must be assessed within the understanding that it is one of multiple co-occurring alkaloids in Dendrobium extracts and has not been the subject of isolated clinical investigation:

Chemical identity and structural characterisation: Well-established; published in peer-reviewed journals since 1966.
Traditional use: Well-documented across multiple classical Chinese medical texts spanning approximately 2,300 years.
Neuroprotection: Moderate preclinical evidence from animal models and cell culture; neuroprotective effects have not been studied in patients.
Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects: Supported by in vitro and animal studies; no controlled human clinical data specifically on dendramine.
Anticancer, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective: Preliminary preclinical evidence only; human clinical evidence either absent or pertains to the broader plant extract.
Athletic performance: Little evidence indicates that dendrobium is effective for this purpose.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Dendramine may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Dendramine may help support.

No body systems available.