Ficus simplicissima

Ficus simplicissima (Hairy Fig / Five-Finger Peach): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Accepted name: Ficus simplicissima Lour. Primary synonym: Ficus hirta Vahl. These two names refer to the same botanical entity and are treated as synonyms throughout the modern scientific literature. Ficus simplicissima, sometimes known by its synonym Ficus hirta, is a species of fig tree in the family Moraceae. Additional synonyms recognised in botanical databases include Ficus heterophylla Lam., Ficus hibiscifolia Champ. ex Benth., and several infraspecific variants of F. hirta. Lu et al. (2016) reported the taxonomic delimitation of the "Hairy-Fig complex" species using phylogenetic analysis, finding that F. hirta, F. esquiroliana, F. simplicissima, and F. fulva show continuously variable morphological characteristics and are conspecific based on genetic traits.

The plant belongs to the section Eriosycea of the genus Ficus. The "hairy-fig complex" of Ficus sect. Eriosycea (Moraceae) includes F. hirta, F. esquiroliana, F. simplicissima, and a Chinese entity misidentified as F. fulva; these species are difficult to delimit because of the continuously varying morphological characteristics. Molecular studies, including analysis of chloroplast genomes, have provided clearer resolution. Phylogenetic analysis has supported that F. simplicissima has a close relationship with F. hirta.

1.1 Common Names and Vernacular Designations

• English: Hispid Fig (also commonly "Hairy Fig")
• Chinese common name: "Five-finger milk" or "Hairy fig," due to the distinctive morphology of its leaves, which resemble a five-fingered hand, and its peach-like fruits, which are covered in a fuzzy coat and emit a milky fragrance from their roots.
• Chinese pharmacopoeial name: Wuzhi Maotao (五指毛桃)
• Pharmacopoeial drug name: Radix Fici Simplicissimae (also recorded as Radix Fici Hirtae or Herba Fici Simplicissimae), referring to the dried root of the plant.
• The plant is also referred to by folk names including "five fingers milk," "Herba Ipomoeae Cairicae," and "southern stilbene," and has been described in some traditional literature as the "Panacis quinquefolii radix."

1.2 Morphological Description

The plant is a shrub, 1–2.5 m tall, with stems not or only occasionally branched. Branchlets are cylindric and rugose when dry, with sparse short thick barbed hairs. Stipules are lanceolate, 1–2 cm, with sparse short barbed hairs. Leaves are palmately divided; the petiole is cylindric, 1–5 cm, densely covered with short thick barbed hairs; the leaf blade is obovate to oblong, 5–16 cm, with margins entire or shallowly serrate, and bears 2–4 basal lateral veins and 3–6 secondary veins on each side of the midvein. The figs (syconium fruits) are axillary or clustered on older leafless branches, paired, globose, 1–1.5 cm in diameter, and sparsely covered with short barbed hairs.

1.3 Geographic Distribution

The native range of the species extends across Assam, Bangladesh, Cambodia, south-central and southeastern China, the East Himalaya, Hainan, India, Java, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sumatra, Thailand, and Vietnam. Within China, it is mainly produced in Guangdong, Hainan, Guangxi, Fujian, and Yunnan. Its distribution outside China includes Sikkim, northeastern India, Myanmar, Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia. Nha Trang, Vietnam is its type locality. It grows in forests or forest margins, at suitable elevations of 180 to 1,380 meters.

1.4 Common Preparations and Dosage Forms

The root (Radix) is the primary medicinal part used in the traditional pharmacopoeia, though leaves, fruits, bark, and latex have also been employed. Preparation forms documented in ethnobotanical and pharmacological literature include:

• Decoction (root soup): The Hakka people of Guangdong have a long-standing tradition of digging up the roots to make soups with chicken, pork bones, or pork trotters as a health-preserving beverage.
• Standardised dried root extract: Used in clinical and experimental studies. In a hepatoprotective mouse study, the component of Radix Fici Hirtae was extracted using petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol, and divided into three dose groups based on the clinical human normal dose of 50 g crude drug per day (0.83 g/kg body weight).
• TCM compound formula: Frequently combined with other herbs in multi-ingredient formulas, as described in clinical use reports for COVID-19 (see Section 5).
• Food ingredient: Radix Fici Hirtae is also used as a popular food ingredient (a material for stewing soup) by local residents in the Lingnan region of China because of its special fragrance and excellent taste.

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2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacopoeial Record

Use of Herba Fici Simplicissimae (the dry root of Ficus simplicissima / Ficus hirta) among the people of Guangdong has a history of more than one thousand years; it has traditionally been used for health care, invigorating the spleen, clearing away damp pathogen, relieving cough, resolving phlegm, activating tendons, and expelling collateral obstruction. Its folk use has mainly concentrated on the treatment of chronic lung disease.

The 1977 edition of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia recorded the drug formally. According to the 1977 Chinese Pharmacopoeia, the root has a sweet taste and a flat (neutral) nature, with functions including strengthening the spleen and tonifying the lung, circulating qi and removing dampness, and relaxing muscles and tendons. Indications listed include insufficiency of the spleen with edema, lack of appetite, pulmonary tuberculosis cough, night sweat, leukorrhagia, puerperal agalactia, rheumatic arthralgia, edema, cirrhotic ascites, hepatitis, and traumatic injury.

The Chinese Pharmacopoeia characterises the drug in terms consistent with traditional five-element theory. "Five-finger Peach" is stated to have "a sweet taste and neutral nature, with effects including supplementing qi and deficiency, moving qi and relieving stagnation, relaxing tendons and activating collaterals, fortifying the spleen and resolving dampness, and relieving cough and resolving phlegm."

2.2 The Hakka Ethnomedicinal Tradition

The roots of hairy fig (Ficus hirta Vahl.), known as "Cantonese ginseng," are widely used as a plant-derived popular food to improve fatigue resistance by the Hakka people in southern China. As a botanical drug with both medicinal and nutritional applications, Ficus hirta Vahl. is an integral part of China's multi-ethnic medical system, serving as a tonic for many years.

Among medicinal plants traded in traditional markets of the southeastern Guangxi Hakka region, Ficus simplicissima demonstrates notably elevated citation rates (RFC ≥ 0.5), alongside species such as Smilax glabra, Ilex asprella, Grona styracifolia, and Spatholobus suberectus. Across three Hakka regional survey sites, Ficus simplicissima was one of only 10 species common to all three locations.

Notably, Hakka use of the plant can diverge from mainstream TCM practice in the plant parts selected. Whereas the root and/or rhizome are recorded as the medical parts in the Chinese Materia Medica (CMM) and the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (CPH), Hakka people sometimes use aerial parts of Ficus simplicissima instead.

2.3 Broader Pan-Asian Traditional Use

Traditionally, Ficus hirta Vahl. has been used in Asian countries to treat various ailments including indigestion, loss of appetite, cold, pneumonia, tuberculosis, cough, asthma, excessive sweating, backache, bruises, arthritis, liver diseases, skin conditions, gynecological disorders, and pediatric illnesses. As a botanical drug with both medicinal and nutritional applications, it is an integral part of China's multi-ethnic medical system, serving as a tonic for many years.

In folk medicine, F. simplicissima was used to treat pneumonia, vitiligo, diarrhea, tonsillitis, cough, and rheumatic pain, and to promote lactation. The fruit of Ficus hirta Vahl. is described in traditional practice as nutrient-rich, nourishing body fluids, acting as a laxative, stimulating lactation, and enhancing immunity; it is also used to treat constipation and hypolactation.

In traditional medicine, the plant is believed to have a purifying effect on the spleen, lung, and liver meridians. The medicinal components of F. hirta encompass flavonoids, coumarins, terpenes, alkaloids, and volatile oils; the described pharmacological activities include the fortification of the spleen and lung, the dispersion of dampness, and the relaxation of the limbs.

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3. Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Chemical Classes

Approximately 130 chemical metabolites have been identified from Ficus hirta Vahl. to date, including flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, phenolics, phenol glycosides, terpenoids, sterols, quinones, and esters. The literature consistently identifies several primary compound classes:

3.1 Flavonoids

The primary bioactive constituents of this plant primarily include flavonoids such as quercetin, hesperidin, apigenin, pycnogenol, and vitexin. A more detailed phytochemical table published in 2025 in Frontiers in Pharmacology enumerates a wide range of individual flavonoids, including:

• Naringenin, blumeatin, apigenin, luteolin, norartocarpetin, kaempferol, quercetin, acacetin, diosmetin, tricin, and multiple methoxy- and hydroxyl-substituted flavone derivatives.

Prenylated flavonoids are a particularly important sub-class. Various flavonoids, coumarins, phenylpropanoids, steroids, triterpenoids, and phenolic acids with diverse biological activities have been isolated from the roots of F. hirta. Among the flavonoid metabolites, apigenin and hesperidin are regarded as responsible for antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects.

3.2 Coumarins (Furanocoumarins)

Psoralen is the main metabolite of the total coumarins in Ficus hirta Vahl., and pharmacological studies have shown that psoralen has strong antibacterial, anticancer, anti-osteoporosis, and neuroprotective activities. Among the phenylpropanoid metabolites, psoralen and bergapten play a leading role in anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects. A novel furanocoumarin glycoside was also reported: 5-O-[β-d-apiofuranosyl-(1→2)-β-d-glucopyranosyl]-bergaptol was the first ever reported furanocoumarin glycoside extracted from the roots of F. hirta Vahl.

3.3 Phenylpropanoids and Phenolics

Phenylpropanoids, bergapten, lupeol palmitate, and azelaic acid have been identified as responsible for anti-inflammatory activity in F. hirta Vahl. Benzene derivatives, phenolics, and glycosides of flavonoids are majorly present in this plant.

3.4 Alkaloids and Terpenoids

Phytochemical investigation of F. hirta fruits has led to the isolation of two carboline alkaloids, five sesquiterpenoids/norsesquiterpenoids, three flavonoids, and one phenylpropane-1,2-diol. The genus Ficus is characterised by flavonoids, coumarins, terpenoids (triterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids), and alkaloids.

3.5 Lignans

The stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, roots, and other components of Ficus hirta Vahl. contain abundant simple lignans with a range of structural variants and biological roles. Plant lignans can only be converted into animal lignans in the microecological environment of the gastrointestinal tract.

3.6 Antioxidant Phenolic Content

Hairy fig fruit (HFF) extracts contain a significant amount of total phenolic content (TPC) ranging from 17.75 ± 0.52 to 85.25 ± 1.72 mg gallic acid/g dry weight, and total flavonoid content (TFC) ranging from 15.80 ± 0.59 to 144.22 ± 8.46 mg rutin/g dry weight, depending on the solvent system used.

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4. Mechanisms of Action

Mechanistic studies on Ficus simplicissima / Ficus hirta have been conducted primarily in cell-based (in vitro) and animal models. Key mechanisms identified include:

4.1 Anti-inflammatory Signalling

Results from phenolic isolation studies indicated that some phenolics showed moderate antioxidant activity in DPPH and superoxide anion radical scavenging assays, and most of the isolated compounds exhibited pronounced inhibitory effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production in murine macrophages. Antineuroinflammatory effects were examined by Western blot; compounds 1 and 11 (phenolic glycosides from F. hirta roots) attenuated the phosphorylation of AKT, JNK, and ERK1/2, and compound 11 inhibited NF-κB p65 phosphorylation, indicating that decreasing neuroinflammation in BV2 microglia cells may be regulated by inhibiting activity in NF-κB, MAPK (JNK and ERK1/2), or AKT signalling pathways.

4.2 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Ethyl acetate extract (EAE) and acetone extract (AE) of hairy fig fruit demonstrated potent antioxidant activities against DPPH (IC₅₀ values of 2.52 and 2.02 mg/mL, respectively) and ABTS radicals (IC₅₀ values of 3.06 and 9.26 mg/mL, respectively) in in vitro assays.

4.3 Hepatoprotective Mechanisms

In a study of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) models, Ficus hirta Vahl. mainly exerted pharmacological effects by mediating lipid metabolism and inflammation; CD36, SREBP-1, SCD1, PPARγ, ACOX1, and CPT1α were identified as key factors related to its effects on NAFLD, while the downregulation of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α was involved in the alleviation of NAFLD.

4.4 Antitumour / Pro-apoptotic Mechanisms

MTT assay testing of Ficus hirta Vahl. revealed cytotoxic activity against HeLa, MCF-7, and H460 cell lines; isoprene flavonoids inhibited the proliferation of HeLa cells with an IC₅₀ value of 28.88 μM, and HeLa cell apoptosis was induced through the MAPK and AKT signalling pathways. Water, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol extracts were also shown to inhibit HeLa cell proliferation and induce apoptosis. In a study of daphnegiranol derivatives from the same plant, MTT assays showed selectively cytotoxic effects against Hep3B cells with IC₅₀ values of 4.87 and 3.35 μM, respectively, more potent than the positive control sorafenib (IC₅₀ = 6.59 μM).

4.5 Antifungal Mechanisms

Pinocembrin-7-O-β-d-glucoside, a major flavonoid compound present in the ethanol extract of F. hirta fruits, showed good antifungal activity against Penicillium italicum, the phytopathogen of citrus blue mold. The inhibition rate was concentration-dependent; the compound exhibited more than 90% inhibitory effect against P. italicum at 400 μg/mL, while 100% inhibition rate was achieved at 800 μg/mL.

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5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Liver Protection and Hepatic Disease

Evidence type: Preclinical (animal and cell-based models); one retrospective clinical study (confounded by multi-ingredient formulas).

A preclinical study assessed the hepatoprotective potential of Radix Fici Hirtae (RFH) on acute alcohol-induced liver injury in Kunming mice. The component was extracted using petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol, and divided into dose groups based on a human clinical reference dose of 50 g crude drug/day (0.83 g/kg body weight). Histopathological analysis was performed and hepatic function was assessed via AST, ALT, AKP, and LDH levels. Except for the n-butanol group, pathological changes of hepatic lipid and inflammatory cell infiltration were alleviated and liver sinus was normalised; concentrations of AST, ALT, AKP, and LDH in chloroform and ethyl acetate groups were significantly decreased compared to the model group. The conclusion was that extracts of RFH are effective for the prevention of alcohol-induced hepatic damage in mice.

Regarding NAFLD, findings from an animal and cell-line study demonstrated that F. hirta Vahl. exerted beneficial preventive and therapeutic effects on NAFLD by improving lipid metabolism and inflammation as well as regulating the structure of gut microbiota, suggesting it may be a candidate for treatment of NAFLD. FV was also shown to modulate gut microbiota composition, including genera such as Allobaculum, Faecalibaculum, and Butyricicoccus in high-fat diet-fed mice. These findings are confined to preclinical models; no controlled human trials have been published as of the available literature.

5.2 Immune Modulation

Evidence type: Preclinical; one small retrospective uncontrolled clinical cohort (within a multi-ingredient TCM formula).

An increasing number of studies have demonstrated that Ficus hirta Vahl. can strengthen non-specific and specific immunity and improve immune system control. Pharmacological studies have shown that Ficus hirta Vahl. has immunoregulatory, digestive system function-promoting, antitussive, antiasthmatic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-aging, hepatoprotective, anti-radiation, and antitumour effects.

A retrospective clinical study addressed the use of a modified Radix Fici Simplicissimae formula combined with Western medicines in COVID-19 patients. The clinical characteristics and prognosis of patients receiving Western medicine (WM) treatment and a combination of traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine (TCM-WM) treatment were retrospectively explored from January 20, 2020, to February 20, 2021. 19 patients (15.20%) and 7 patients (5.60%) in the WM treatment group developed into severe type and critically ill, respectively, compared to 5 patients (9.43%) and 0 patients (0.00%) in the TCM-WM treatment group. Among the 65 patients who received the combination therapy, the overall recovery rate was 98.46% (64/65) and the mortality rate was 1.54% (1/65); 24 (36.92%) had treatment-related adverse events of any grade, the most common being nausea (n=15 [30.61%]) and diarrhea (n=8 [16.33%]). Critical limitation: This was a non-randomised retrospective study using a complex multi-ingredient TCM formula; the specific contribution of F. simplicissima root cannot be isolated from the other components. Radix Fici Simplicissimae was used in only 30 of the 65 patients in the TCM-WM group.

5.3 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

Evidence type: Preclinical only (in vitro and animal models).

Recent studies revealed that the roots of hairy fig exhibited functions of hepatoprotective activity, antitumour effects, antibacterial activity, analgesic effects, and enhancement of immunological function. The anti-inflammatory mechanisms identified (NF-κB inhibition, NO suppression, cytokine downregulation) are based entirely on cell-line and rodent experiments. No prospective human trials specifically on F. simplicissima as a single agent for inflammatory indications have been published in the peer-reviewed literature identified through this review.

5.4 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence type: In vitro only.

In vitro assays evaluating antioxidant and antifungal activities of various solvent extracts of hairy fig fruits found abundant antioxidant components with significant total phenolic and flavonoid contents, with TPC ranging from 17.75 ± 0.52 to 85.25 ± 1.72 mg gallic acid/g dry weight and TFC from 15.80 ± 0.59 to 144.22 ± 8.46 mg rutin/g dry weight. All antioxidant data for this species are from cell-free radical scavenging assays or cell-line experiments; no human trials have been conducted.

5.5 Antitumour / Cytotoxic Activity

Evidence type: Preclinical in vitro only.

The cytotoxic potential of F. hirta / F. simplicissima has been explored against several cancer cell lines. Prenylated isoflavones exhibited significant anti-proliferative effects against five human cancer cell lines including HL-60, SMMC-7721, A-549, MCF-7, and SW480, with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.16 to 12.68 μM. Crude extracts (aqueous, ethyl acetate, and butyl alcohol) of hairy fig fruit have also been shown to exhibit cytotoxic effects on HeLa cells. All available evidence is limited to in vitro cell-line models. No human clinical oncology studies have been reported.

5.6 Antitussive and Respiratory Support

Evidence type: Traditional / preclinical.

Radix Fici Simplicissimae, a TCM grown in south China, is widely used locally and has a variety of pharmacological effects including strengthening spleen and supplementing lung function. Antitussive and antiasthmatic effects have been described in pharmacological review literature based on extract studies, but no dedicated randomised controlled clinical trial for cough or asthma has been published for this species in isolation.

5.7 Digestive System Effects

Evidence type: Traditional / preclinical.

Approximately 130 chemical metabolites have been identified from Ficus hirta Vahl. The bioactive properties of its extracts include immune modulation, enhancement of digestive system function, antitussive and antiasthmatic effects, as well as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-aging, hepatoprotective, anti-radiation, and antitumour activities. Enhancement of digestive function is well-documented in traditional sources and pharmacological reviews, but human-level clinical evidence is lacking.

5.8 Lactation Promotion

Evidence type: Traditional only.

The medicinal and edible plant, Ficus hirta Vahl. (also called hairy fig), is used for the treatment of constipation, inflammation, postpartum hypogalactia, tumours, and cancer. No controlled human trials addressing lactation promotion by F. simplicissima alone have been located in the peer-reviewed literature searched for this article.

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6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

Based on the totality of the ethnobotanical record and the preclinical pharmacological literature, Ficus simplicissima is associated with the following body systems:

• Hepatic / Gastrointestinal system: Hepatoprotection, liver fat metabolism (NAFLD model data), digestive function enhancement, treatment of diarrhea, hepatitis, and cirrhotic ascites (traditional).
• Respiratory system: Antitussive, antiasthmatic, lung-tonifying (traditional and preclinical); included in TCM pulmonary disease management.
• Immune system: Immunomodulation (non-specific and specific immunity; preclinical), spleen function support (traditional).
• Musculoskeletal system: Rheumatic pain, arthritis, and traumatic injury (traditional); anti-inflammatory in cell and animal models.
• Oncology (investigational): Cytotoxic activity against multiple cancer cell lines (in vitro only).
• Reproductive and lactation: Postpartum hypogalactia, gynaecological disorders (traditional).
• Skin: Vitiligo, skin conditions (traditional); topical use of latex for wounds (folk).
• Nervous system: Phenolic glycosides from the roots showed antineuroinflammatory activity in BV2 microglia cells, regulated by inhibiting activity in NF-κB, MAPK (JNK and ERK1/2), or AKT signalling pathways (preclinical only).

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7. Reported Dosages in Studies

No global regulatory body (e.g., NIH ODS, EMA, WHO) has issued a monograph establishing a standard daily dose for Ficus simplicissima as of the date of this article. The following dosages have been reported in source-identified studies and pharmacopoeial references:

• In the hepatoprotective mouse study, the dose groups were based on the clinical human reference dose of 50 g crude drug per day (equivalent to 0.83 g/kg body weight in humans), from which high, medium, and low dose groups were derived for animal experiments.
• The traditional Hakka practice involves using the roots in soup preparation with animal proteins, consumed as a regular health-preserving beverage, but no standardised gram quantity is specified in the ethnobotanical sources.
• The COVID-19 retrospective study employed a modified formula incorporating Radix Fici Simplicissimae combined with multiple other TCM agents; the dose of the individual herb within the formula was not separately reported in the available abstract.

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8. Safety Considerations

8.1 General Toxicological Assessment

Toxicological assessments conducted to date have confirmed the safety and nontoxicity of Ficus hirta Vahl. overall; however, research on the plant remains limited, necessitating further investigation into its pharmacokinetics and mechanisms of action.

Folk usage in Guangdong over more than a thousand years is described in the patent literature as having a long history of use that is "safe without toxic side effect."

8.2 Coumarin-Related Safety Concerns

A specific safety concern arises from the coumarin content of the plant. Psoralen is the main metabolite of the total coumarins in Ficus hirta Vahl.; pharmacological studies have shown that psoralen has strong antibacterial, anticancer, anti-osteoporosis, and neuroprotective activities. However, in recent years, coumarins have been suggested to have high activity and toxicity, some of which include hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Detailed pharmacological studies of each individual coumarin isolated from Ficus hirta Vahl. have not yet been conducted. Psoralen (a furanocoumarin) is also a known photosensitiser; this property is well-established for psoralen-class compounds generally, though specific photosensitisation studies using F. simplicissima preparations directly are not documented in the sources reviewed.

8.3 Adverse Events Reported in the Clinical Study

In the COVID-19 retrospective clinical cohort using a modified Radix Fici Simplicissimae-containing formula combined with Western medicines, 24 out of 65 patients (36.92%) had treatment-related adverse events of any grade; the most common were nausea (n=15, 30.61%), diarrhea (n=8, 16.33%), and abdominal discomfort. These adverse events cannot be attributed solely to F. simplicissima as the treatment involved multiple agents.

8.4 Current Gaps and Research Needs

Although many phytochemicals have been isolated from Ficus hirta Vahl., there have been few studies on their chemical properties and pharmacological effects; unique plant metabolites in Ficus hirta Vahl. have not yet been fully characterised, and whether there are specific unique plant metabolites requires further study. The majority of experimental research confirming traditional therapeutic properties has used unidentified crude preparations; because reproduction of data and identification of bioactive metabolites are difficult, phytochemical standardisation and bioactivity-guided bioactive metabolite identification are required.

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Summary of Evidence Strength

The overall body of evidence for Ficus simplicissima as a dietary supplement or medicinal agent can be characterised as follows:

• Traditional use: Well-documented across multiple centuries and ethnic groups in southern China and across Southeast Asia, with formal inclusion in the 1977 Chinese Pharmacopoeia.
• Phytochemistry: Reasonably well-characterised, with approximately 130 metabolites identified, though comprehensive pharmacokinetic data for individual constituents are lacking.
• Preclinical pharmacology: A substantial body of in vitro and animal studies supports antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, antifungal, and cytotoxic activities.
• Human clinical evidence: Very limited. The only identified human data is a single small non-randomised retrospective study using a multi-ingredient TCM formula in COVID-19 patients, in which the specific contribution of F. simplicissima root cannot be isolated. No randomised controlled trials targeting any single indication have been published for this species.

References

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