IngredientsGalbanum is an aromatic gum resin and a product of certain umbelliferous Persian plant species in the genus Ferula, chiefly Ferula gummosa (synonym F. galbaniflua) and Ferula rubricaulis. It is formally classified as an oleo-gum-resin from Ferula gummosa Boiss. (syn. F. galbaniflua), a tall umbelliferous perennial native to the mountain ranges of Iran, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan. Galbanum is a herbaceous plant belonging to the Apiaceae family and the genus Ferula L., a family that includes many spices such as angelica, caraway, coriander, dill, anise, and fennel.
In Persian, galbanum is known as bārīja or bārzad — a slightly bitter, odorous gum resin obtained from several Asian umbelliferous plants, especially the genera Ferula L. and Dorema Don, for which numerous medicinal uses have been recorded. The etymology of the English word derives from ancient roots: the word traces back through Greek (khalbánè) to Biblical Hebrew (ḥelbĕna), cognate with Syriac Halbĕniṯā, Sumerian ḪAL, and Akkadian baluḫu, all rightly pointing to the Near Eastern and Middle Eastern provenance of galbanum-yielding plants.
Galbanum-yielding plants grow plentifully on the slopes of the mountain ranges of northern Iran. The plant grows wild at 1,000–3,000 metres altitude. Iran — particularly the Kashan and Fars provinces — remains the dominant source.
There are two kinds of galbanum in commerce: Levant galbanum and Persian galbanum. The latter is softer than the Levant, has a more terebinthic odour and the smell and consistency of Venice turpentine, and contains fruit and fragments of stalks in place of bits of sliced roots. The species secretes two types of resin: Levant or Soft Galbanum, and Persian or Hard Galbanum.
It occurs usually in hard or soft, irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or occasionally in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish, or greenish-yellow colour. The best tears are palish externally and about the size of a hazel nut and when broken open are composed of clear white tears.
Resin is harvested by incising the stem base; a cream-coloured exudate concretes on exposure to air. The whole plant abounds with a milky juice, which oozes from the joints of old plants, and exudes and hardens from the base of the stem after it has been cut down, and is finally obtained by incisions made in the root.
Steam distillation of the crude resin yields 10–15% essential oil (CAS 8023-91-4; the resin itself is CAS 9000-24-2). The resin may be burned, and the oil has been used as a fixative in perfumes. Historically, compound pills of galbanum were official in the British Pharmacopoeia, 1898, under the name Pilula Galbani Composita; the former name was Pilula Asafoetida Composita, and the pills consisted of equal parts of galbanum, asafetida, and myrrh, with syrup of glucose used as excipient.
Used for over 3,000 years, galbanum was treasured by the ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, and Greeks as a sacred resin for purification and protection. Galbanum is mentioned in the Bible (Exodus 30:34–35) not as a medicinal drug, but as an ingredient of a sacred incense (also including frankincense, onycha, and others) destined to be burned in the "Tabernacle of the Congregation." Pliny and Dioscorides refer to ancient Syria as the habitat of the galbanum plant.
Galbanum was highly treasured as a sacred substance by the ancient Egyptians. The "green" incense of Egyptian antiquity is believed to have been galbanum. In Ancient Egypt, fragrant materials and aromatic resins played an important role in temple rituals, purification ceremonies, and funerary traditions. Galbanum has long been associated with ancient incense culture, while resins more broadly were valued for their spiritual, medicinal, and cleansing symbolism — aromatic materials were often connected to purification, protection, and communication with the divine.
It was mentioned in the ancient Egyptian Ebers Papyrus (1500 BC) as a remedy for various ailments.
Hippocrates employed it in medicine, and Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxiv. 13) ascribed to it extraordinary curative powers, concluding his account of it with the assertion that "the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium is sufficient to kill a serpent."
Dioscorides prescribed the milky juice of galbanum for ulcers, coughs, convulsions, ruptures, headaches, stomach pains, menstrual cramps, toothaches, snakebites, and labor pain. Rubbed on the eyes as an ointment, it improved eyesight. Taken with honey, galbanum was regarded as a remedy for indigestion and flatulence.
Mithridates VI administered herb-based substances in small quantities to render himself immune from poisoning. His antidote, which contained galbanum, became known as Antidotum Mithridaticum, or Theriac.
In traditional Persian medicine, galbanum was used in preparations intended for respiratory complaints, digestive disorders, and topical applications. In Persian ethnopharmacology, F. gummosa has been traditionally used as an antiseptic, an anti-flatulent, an anti-seizure agent, an anti-spasm, a pain killer, an inflammation reliever, and a tonic of memory enhancement. The plant's Persian name is Barijeh (or Bārijeh), and galbanum, the oleo-gum-resin of F. gummosa, is one of the essential traditional herbal medicines in Iran, used as a tonic for epilepsy and chorea, memory enhancement, gastrointestinal diseases, and wound healing.
There are references attributed to the use by Assyrians of galbanum in history, where it was used as a fumigant. In both Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine, galbanum has been utilized for its purported health benefits, particularly in treating skin ailments and respiratory issues.
The drug was occasionally given in more contemporary (19th-century) medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It has the actions "common to substances containing a resin and a volatile oil." The dose recorded in the U.S. Dispensatory was from ten to twenty grains (0.65 to 1.3 g), given in pill, or triturated with gum arabic, sugar and water so as to form an emulsion.
With a specific gravity of 1.212, galbanum contains about 8% terpenes; about 65% of a resin which contains sulfur; about 20% gum; and a very small quantity of the colorless crystalline substance umbelliferone.
The resin also contains α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, cadinene, 3-carene, and ocimene. Galbanum oil is composed of monoterpenes in large amounts and pyrazines in small amounts. Although the monoterpenes are the main components of galbanum oil, they hardly contribute to the distinct galbanum aroma. GC analyses of the essential oil have identified β-pinene (50.1%), α-pinene (18.3%), delta-3-carene (6.7%), origanene (3.3%), and 4(10)-thujene (3.1%) as the main components.
The very green smell of galbanum is not due to its main constituents. Several pyrazines present at less than 0.05% in the essential oil — such as 2-methoxy-3-secbutylpyrazine — as well as galbanolene, are the molecules responsible for its characteristic smell. Sulfide esters such as isopropyl 3-methylthio butanoate also contribute to the characteristic spicy smell.
A study published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (PubMed PMID 19173603) investigated the aroma profile in detail: the scanty amounts of pyrazines contribute significantly to the aroma. Considering the complexity and potency of the odor, the essential oil was assumed to contain previously unidentified compounds with high odor contribution. By gas chromatography–mass spectrometry–olfactometry (GC-MS-O) analysis of galbanum oil, fruity-green-balsamic notes were detected at two different retention times. MD-GC-MS-O analyses led to the identification of the novel key aroma compounds (6Z,8E)-undeca-6,8,10-trien-3-one and (6Z,8E)-undeca-6,8,10-trien-4-one in galbanum oil.
Aerial and ground parts of F. gummosa possess drimane-type sesquiterpene coumarins such as conferone, mogoltacin, and feselol; monoterpenes such as α-pinene and β-pinene; and sesquiterpenes such as germacrene-D and α-eudesmol.
Chemical studies on plants of the genus Ferula (Apiaceae) show the presence of many compounds belonging mainly to the groups of monoterpene coumarins, sesquiterpene coumarins, sesquiterpenes, furanocoumarins, and aromatic compounds. A chemical analysis of Ferula species reported the presence of various phytochemicals such as sulfur-containing compounds, sesquiterpenes, coumarin derivatives, and galbanic acid, with potential anticancer effects.
Specific compounds isolated from F. gummosa include farnesiferol A, conferone, conferdione, feselol, and gumoside B; while samarcandin and mogoltavidin have been isolated from F. galbaniflua.
Research published in Phytochemistry Letters (Adhami et al., 2014) identified acetylcholinesterase inhibitors from galbanum, the oleo-gum-resin of Ferula gummosa Boiss. This finding connects to the traditional Persian use of the resin as a tonic for memory enhancement.
The essential oil of F. gummosa oleogum resin was found to be active against some Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in laboratory studies. Gram-positive bacteria are more sensitive to the essential oils of F. gummosa compared with Gram-negative strains. In addition to essential oils, different kinds of F. gummosa extracts derived from the root — particularly the ethanolic extract — had a potent antibacterial effect. Specifically, 12.5 mg/ml of ethanolic extract and 6.25 mg/ml of methanolic root extract had inhibitory effects on Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In contrast to Proteus mirabilis, E. coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae, sensitivity towards the ethanolic extract was observed in Serratia marcescens, Shigella dysenteriae, and Yersinia enterocolitica.
A PMC-published study (PMC5296941) evaluated the antimicrobial effects of F. gummosa gum specifically against extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Acinetobacter clinical isolates, which are important causes of nosocomial infections. Regarding multidrug resistance reversal, conferone, mogoltacin, and feselol from F. gummosa suppress P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated drug efflux in highly resistant human breast cancer cells. Exposure of cells to conferone, mogoltacin, feselol, and verapamil (positive control) enhanced doxorubicin uptake in MCF-7/Dox cells in a dose-dependent manner, but varied with the structure of the chemical. At 25 μM, all the tested sesquiterpene coumarins restored at least 50% of the reference uptake; at 10 μM, their potency varied, where conferone showed the highest potency and feselol showed the lowest.
Evidence strength: All antimicrobial data are from in vitro laboratory studies and do not yet have clinical human trial support. Findings are preliminary.
A 2022 review published in PMC (PMC8976906) covering anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities of the genus Ferula summarized the available evidence. The effects of aqueous, methanolic, and acetone extracts of the seed and root of F. gummosa on acute and chronic pain, as well as inflammation, were examined. Only the acetone extract of the root could reduce licking and biting time in the late phase of the formalin test (used for chronic pain assessment), but the extracts did not show anti-inflammatory effects in that model.
A 2025 study published in Chemistry & Biodiversity (Esfandiar et al., Wiley) concluded that Ferula galbaniflua (Bārijeh) is renowned for its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties, making it valuable in traditional medicine for treating skin conditions, promoting wound healing, and enhancing collagen synthesis. The study found that the results underscore the considerable antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of F. galbaniflua, presenting it as a promising natural remedy for skin inflammation.
A PMC-published study (PMC10465878) on the antioxidant and cytotoxic potential of galbanum gum reported: total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and antioxidant potential of the gum were 9.22 mg of gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g, 3.6 mg of quercetin equivalents (QE)/g of extract, respectively.
Evidence strength: Evidence is predominantly from in vitro and animal studies. No controlled human clinical trials specifically evaluating galbanum's anti-inflammatory effects have been identified. Results are preliminary.
Galbanum, the aromatic gum resin obtained from F. gummosa, has been traditionally used as a tonic, anticonvulsant, and emmenagogue agent.
Scientifically, Sayah et al. (2001) used the fruit essential oil of F. gummosa to evaluate antiepileptic activity. The result showed that the essential oil had no measurable effect on maximal electroshock-induced seizures, but it could reduce the effect of pentylenetetrazole-induced tonic seizures in mice. It was also suggested that toxic and anticonvulsant effects of the essential oil might be related to the compounds α-thujene and β-pinene.
Evidence strength: Animal (rodent) studies only. No human clinical trials. The anticonvulsant effect is model-dependent and requires further investigation.
Ferula gummosa, a potent medicinal herb, has been shown to possess anticancer activities in vitro. One study evaluated the cytotoxic and apoptogenic impacts of F. gummosa gum on U87 glioblastoma cells using MTT assay, flow cytometry with annexin V/FITC-PI apoptosis evaluation, ROS assay, and quantitative RT-PCR. The results revealed that F. gummosa inhibited the growth of U87 cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner with IC50 values of 115, 82, and 52 μg/mL obtained for 24, 48, and 72 hours post-treatment, respectively. ROS levels significantly decreased following 4, 12, and 24 hours after treatment. Flow cytometry analysis suggested that F. gummosa induced a sub-G1 peak, which translated to apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner.
Feselol and mogoltacin are two biologically active sesquiterpene coumarins isolated from root extracts of Ferula species that showed cytotoxic properties. For example, a combination of 40 mg/mL vincristine and 16 mg/mL mogoltacin increased the cytotoxicity of vincristine by 32.8% in human transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) cells. A combination of feselol and mogoltacin also enhanced the cytotoxicity of cisplatin in 5637 cells (human bladder carcinoma cell line).
One investigation evaluated the cytotoxic activity of 11 phytochemicals from Ferula species — including conferone, mogoltadone, galbanic acid, herniarin, umbelliprenin, and others — against ovarian carcinoma (CH1), lung cancer (A549), and melanoma (SK-MEL-28) cell lines using MTT assay. Overall, moderate cytotoxic activity was observed from the tested compounds with IC50 values in the micromolar range. The highest activity against CH1 and A549 lines was from conferone, while stylosin and tschimgine were the most potent compounds against SK-MEL-28.
A study (PMC6190245) examining synergistic effects of Ferula gummosa and radiotherapy used HeLa (cervical cancer) cells: it examined the cytotoxic effects of F. gummosa in terms of induction of apoptosis and radiosensitivity in HeLa cells. Cells were incubated with different concentrations of the plant resin (0–1000 µg/ml) for 24, 48, and 72 hours, with cytotoxicity determined by MTT assay and apoptosis investigated using flow cytometry following propidium iodide (PI) staining of DNA.
There are many studies on biological activities of F. gummosa, but these studies have been limited to experimental and animal studies. Recent studies have revealed different pharmacological activities of this plant including anti-diabetic, anti-tumor, and antimicrobial properties, as well as its ability to improve morphine withdrawal syndrome.
Evidence strength: All anticancer data are from cell-line (in vitro) studies. These findings establish biological plausibility but cannot be extrapolated to clinical efficacy in humans. No human oncology trials have been conducted with galbanum or its isolated coumarins.
F. gummosa essential oil exhibited significant antibacterial and antifungal properties in laboratory assays, as confirmed by MBC (minimum bactericidal concentration) and MFC (minimum fungicidal concentration) assays.
Evidence strength: In vitro only. No clinical data available.
The traditional use of galbanum as a "tonic of memory enhancement" has been supported to a limited extent by preclinical findings. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors have been isolated from galbanum (the oleo-gum-resin of Ferula gummosa), as reported by Adhami et al. (2014). Acetylcholinesterase inhibition is the predominant mechanism of approved drugs used in Alzheimer's disease, making this finding of pharmacological interest. However, no human studies have explored cognitive effects of galbanum or its isolated constituents.
Evidence strength: In vitro enzyme inhibition only. Evidence is entirely preliminary.
Among the applications reported in more recent studies, anti-catarrh and expectorant effects of galbanum have been noted in the scientific literature. Its warming, aromatic properties made it a popular remedy in traditional medicine for respiratory issues, including bronchitis and chronic coughs.
Evidence strength: No clinical human trials identified. These uses rest on traditional attribution and general pharmacological properties of constituent volatile terpenoids.
There are several reports on the utilization of the Ferula genus for the treatment of stomachache, cholera and diarrhea, digestive diseases, diabetes, and memory disorders. Galbanum is traditionally used for treating different diseases including flatulence and memory impairment.
Evidence strength: Traditional use with limited preclinical corroboration. No controlled human trials.
Sesquiterpene coumarins from the genus Ferula have shown versatile biological activities. Studies indicate that their effect on inhibition of ABC transporters, especially P-glycoprotein (P-gp), in human cells is among the most important biological activities of these sesquiterpene coumarins. This has prompted laboratory investigation into whether isolated galbanum sesquiterpene coumarins could be used as adjuvants to chemotherapy, to overcome drug-resistance mechanisms in cancer cells. All such data remain in vitro.
Galbanum has historically been used in several forms. In 19th-century Western medicine, the drug was occasionally given in doses of from five to fifteen grains. The U.S. Dispensatory of 1918 recorded doses of from ten to twenty grains (0.65 to 1.3 g), given in pill, or triturated with gum arabic, sugar and water so as to form an emulsion.
In contemporary research, dosages have been employed only in preclinical settings:
No standardized human dosage has been established for galbanum as a dietary supplement or herbal medicine in any modern pharmacopoeia or clinical guideline. The crude resin, essential oil (CAS 8023-91-4), and resinoid (CAS 9000-24-2) are the principal forms available commercially, with the essential oil produced by steam distillation and the resinoid typically prepared by solvent extraction.
Galbanum holds FEMA GRAS No. 2502, indicating it is approved for food flavoring in the United States, with a long history of safe use as a fragrance and flavoring material. Galbanum resin is used to flavor some foods and beverages, such as chewing gum, soft drinks, and liqueurs.
Galbanum resinoid (CAS 9000-24-2) and essential oil (CAS 8023-91-4) are subject to a Restriction Standard under IFRA (International Fragrance Association) 49th and subsequent amendments including the 51st (2023). The material is not approved for use in IFRA Category 1 (products applied to the underarm, baby products) or Category 6 (mouthwash and similar oral-care products).
Skin irritation is of mild potential at high concentration (above 5% in formula) but is well-tolerated at typical fragrance usage (below 2% in compound). Sensitization risk arises primarily from the oxidized terpene fraction (alpha-pinene hydroperoxides) — use of fresh, well-stored material is recommended to minimize this risk. Galbanum is not classified as phototoxic, as it lacks furocoumarin content (unlike bergamot essential oil).
Volatile monoterpenes may cause respiratory irritation in poorly ventilated processing environments; adequate ventilation is recommended when handling the material.
Non-clinical toxicity studies showed slight irritation in a rabbit model, which was found to be reversible, and the material did not elicit skin sensitization in the guinea pig model.
Galbanum is not classified as phototoxic due to the absence of furocoumarin content. This is a meaningful distinction from some other Apiaceae-derived materials (such as certain Angelica or bergamot preparations), which contain linear furanocoumarins capable of causing phototoxic reactions on the skin.
Studies on biological activities of F. gummosa have been limited to experimental and animal studies. There are no long-term human toxicology studies of galbanum ingestion as a dietary supplement, and the current regulatory approvals cover its use as a flavoring agent at low levels, not as a concentrated medicinal supplement. No reproductive or developmental toxicology concerns have been identified at typical fragrance usage levels.
The traditional uses of galbanum span three millennia and multiple civilizations, and preclinical research has corroborated several biological activities at the in vitro and animal levels. In more recent studies, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, anti-nociceptive, anti-leptic, antiseptic, analgesic, anti-diabetic, spasmolytic, carminative, expectorant, anti-catarrh, anti-rheumatic, anti-hysteric, laxative, and aphrodisiac applications of galbanum have been reported in the research literature. However, the translation of these findings into validated human medicine remains absent. There are many studies on biological activities of F. gummosa, but these studies have been limited to experimental and animal studies.
The identification of isolated bioactive sesquiterpene coumarins (conferone, mogoltacin, feselol, galbanic acid) as P-gp inhibitors in vitro and as potential anticancer adjuvants represents the most scientifically advanced preclinical area. The search for safe P-gp inhibitors, especially natural compounds including sesquiterpene coumarins, with fewer side effects towards normal tissues may lead to more successful chemotherapies in future. These remain in vitro laboratory observations and have not progressed to clinical trials.
The pharmaceutical use of galbanum as a crude drug is now considered obsolete in Western medicine, though it remains an active ingredient of Iranian traditional practice and a subject of ongoing phytochemical investigation. Its primary commercial role today is in perfumery, where its intense green character — largely attributable to trace pyrazines and undecatrienones rather than its bulk monoterpene constituents — gives it a unique and irreplaceable place as a natural fragrance material.
Health conditions that Galbanum may help support.
Body systems that Galbanum may help support.
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