Jurubeba (Solanum paniculatum L.): A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description
Solanum paniculatum, commonly known as jurubeba, is a nightshade common in almost all of Brazil. Jurubeba, also known popularly as jurupeba, jubeba, or juna, is a neotropical weed of very common occurrence in Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Argentina, used in folk medicine and for culinary purposes.
Jurubeba is a small tree growing up to 3 m high, with heart-shaped leaves that are smooth on top and fuzzy underneath. It produces a small, yellow fruit and lilac or white flowers. Both male and female jurubeba trees exist; the female grows slightly taller, has larger leaves, and bears fruit.
Well known in its native range, this species has been described time and again under different now-invalid names, some of which are homonyms of other Solanum taxa. Historical synonyms include Solanum jubeba Vell., Solanum belfort Vand., Solanum botelho Vand., Solanum macronema Sendtn., and Solanum manoelii Moric., among others.
Many species of Solanum are known by the Brazilian population as "jurubeba," but the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia describes the species Solanum paniculatum L. as the true "jurubeba." This taxonomic ambiguity is significant: related species such as Solanum fastigiatum (sometimes called "false jurubeba") and Solanum lycocarpum (known as "jurubebão") share common names in Brazilian vernacular but are distinct plants.
The species belongs to the family Solanaceae (the nightshade family). Solanum is the largest genus in the family Solanaceae, comprising about 2,000 species distributed in the subtropical and tropical regions of Africa, Australia, and parts of Asia.
1.1 Common Names and Alternate Designations
- Portuguese (Brazil): Jurubeba, jurupeba, jubeba, juna, jurubeba-verdadeira, jupeba, juribeba
- Regulatory designations: Listed in the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia (Farmacopeia Brasileira) and on the Brazilian National List of Medicinal Plants of Interest to the Unified Health System (RENISUS)
1.2 Plant Parts Used
Many parts of the jurubeba plant are used in traditional Brazilian medicine, including the fruit, the leaves, and the roots. The plant contains a number of active compounds including steroids, saponins, glycosides, and alkaloids in the root, stem, and leaves. The alkaloids are found more abundantly in the root, although they are also present in the stem and leaves. The steroids and saponins are found in higher quantities in the root, while the leaves have the greatest amount of glycosides.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
2.1 Brazilian Folk Medicine
The indigenous uses of jurubeba are very poorly documented, but its uses in Brazilian herbal medicine have been described quite well. This plant species is used in Brazilian folk medicine as a tonic, antifever agent, bitter, and eupeptic to treat liver and gastric dysfunctions, and for the manufacture of beverages and culinary purposes.
The leaves and roots are used in Brazilian medicine as a tonic, and for fevers, anemia, erysipelas, hepatitis, liver and spleen disorders, uterine tumors, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic gastritis, and other digestive problems such as sluggish digestion, bloating, and flatulence.
Jurubeba is a medicinal plant used in traditional medicine for liver problems, in addition to being used as a cholagogue, emmenagogue, healing agent, febrifuge, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, tonic, decongestant, diuretic, and against inappetence.
Jurubeba is used in folk medicine for the treatment of anemia, gastrointestinal disorders, and inflammatory conditions in general. An ethnobotanical survey in "Todos os Santos" Bay has also pointed out S. paniculatum as an herb to treat asthma.
2.2 Beverage and Culinary Traditions
An infusion of its stem and root in sugar cane alcohol (cachaça) is popularly used as an apéritif or digestif. The fruits are traditionally consumed in rural areas pickled in brine and vinegar.
Jurubeba leaf tea is a very common household remedy throughout Brazil for hangovers, especially when combined with indigestion and bloating from overeating.
Classic spirit drinks such as Jurubeba Lion Norte® (Bahia, Brazil), Jurubeba Nordestina® (Pernambuco, Brazil), and Coleguinha Jurubeba® (Ceará, Brazil) represent a combination of macerated jurubeba fruit, alcoholic herbal extracts, decoctions of bitter plants, cane sugar syrup, and ethanol.
A mixture of jurubeba juice, red wine, and herbal extracts is a well-known preparation sold bottled in botecos and street markets throughout Brazil. The pea-like fruit, classified as a non-conventional vegetable by the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Food Supply, has wider culinary uses. Before it can be used as an ingredient, it must be pickled to lessen its bitterness, after which it can be added to rice recipes, braised food, and used to season dishes.
2.3 Pharmacopoeial and Official Recognition
Jurubeba is listed as an official drug in the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia as a specific for anemia and liver disorders. This species is listed in the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia and belongs to the "National List of Medicinal Plants of Interest to the Unified Health System (RENISUS)," presenting potential to generate products of interest to the Ministry of Health.
The plant is a component of various pharmaceutical formulations including syrups, infusions or decoctions, ethanolic extracts, and elixirs.
2.4 Historical Documentation
The historical record of jurubeba in formal Brazilian pharmaceutical literature dates back to the 19th century. The Brazilian flora is very rich in medicinal plants, and much information about the traditional use of Brazilian plants is only available from early literature. Data about Brazilian plants were recorded in the books of Polish physician P.L.N. Chernoviz, who lived in Brazil for 15 years in the 19th century, in editions published between 1864 and 1920. Jurubeba was documented in this corpus as a tonic and remedy for liver and digestive conditions.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
3.1 Steroidal Alkaloids
Previous phytochemical studies revealed the presence of steroidal alkaloids in S. paniculatum, including jurubebina, jubebina, and solanine, as well as isojuripidina, isojurubidina, isopaniculidina, and jurubidina saponins.
The major steroidal alkaloids reported were jurubidine, jurubine, and solanine. Pharmacological studies indicate that S. paniculatum root extract is able to inhibit gastric secretion in pylorus-ligated mice as well as to be effective against stress-induced ulcer in mice, both activities being related to the high concentration of 3-aminospirostane steroidal alkaloids.
A key group of recently characterized alkaloids is the 3-aminofurostanes and 3-aminospirostanes. Research on S. paniculatum roots resulted in the identification of paniculidine and the characterization of 17 3-aminofurostane alkaloids by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry.
Researchers discovered novel plant steroids, saponins, glycosides, and alkaloids in the root, stem, and leaves. The alkaloids were found more abundantly in the root (0.25–0.96%), although present in the stem (0.28%) and leaves (0.20%). Solanidine and solasodine were discovered in the leaves and fruit of jurubeba, which account for its liver-protective properties.
3.2 Steroidal Saponins
Fractionation of ethanolic extracts (70%) from aerial parts (leaves and twigs) of S. paniculatum led to the isolation of two new saponins: (22R, 23S, 25R)-3β,6α,23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane 6-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl derivatives, and diosgenin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1″→6′)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, together with four known compounds including caffeic acid, diosgenin β-D-glucopyranoside, rutin, and quercetin 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-O-β-D-galactopyranoside.
Further work on S. paniculatum leaves led to the isolation of six new spirostanic saponins with complex polyhydroxylated steroidal backbone structures characterized by 1D and 2D NMR and HRESIMS analyses.
3.3 Phytosterols
Among the steroids isolated from Solanum, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol were widely reported in the literature as major constituents. Two studies showed that stigmasterol and β-sitosterol may be responsible for the biological activity of Solanum, including immune modulation.
Phytochemical analysis of the fruit hexane extract proved the presence of stigmasterol (2.36 μg/200 μg of extract) and β-sitosterol (0.829 μg/200 μg of extract).
3.4 Phenolic Compounds and Flavonoids
Previous phytochemical investigations on Solanum species led to the identification of steroidal saponins, steroidal alkaloids, terpenes, flavonoids, lignans, sterols, phenolic compounds, and coumarins, among other compounds. Recent phytochemical studies of the Solanum species report the occurrence of flavonoids, amides, steroids, lignans, steroidal saponins, and steroidal alkaloids.
Identified phenolics include rutin, caffeic acid, quercetin glycosides, and chlorogenic acid. Chlorogenic acid was identified in the aerial parts of the plant, and the aerial parts showed antidiarrheal activity at doses of 125, 250, 500, and 750 mg/kg in animal studies.
3.5 Other Constituents
Fructose, glucose, and galactose were detected in the fruits, and solanine was isolated from the roots and stems. The plant has also been found to contain a large proportion of bitter properties, which were thought to contribute to its ability to stimulate digestion. Drying temperature significantly affects the phytochemical profile: increasing drying air temperature reduces the contents of total phenolics and total alkaloids in leaf aqueous extracts, whereas increased air velocity increases the concentration of these substances.
4. Mechanisms of Action
4.1 Gastric Antisecretory and Antiulcer Mechanisms
Administration of the root extract into the duodenal lumen inhibited histamine- and bethanechol-induced gastric secretion in pylorus-ligated mice. The aqueous extract of roots (ED50 value, 1.2 g/kg body weight, orally) protected animals against gastric lesion production following hypersecretion induced by cold restraint stress. This effect was not reproduced when lesions were induced by blockade of prostaglandin synthesis via indomethacin, suggesting that antiulcer activity appears to be related directly to a potent antisecretory mechanism rather than to prostaglandin-mediated protection.
Treatment with S. paniculatum by oral route was able to decrease gastric lesion area and also reduced levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO) in the gastric mucosa, indicating a reduction in neutrophil infiltration and local inflammation at the site of ulceration.
4.2 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms
The fruit hexane extract (SpE) was analyzed for the presence of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol, and the anti-inflammatory effect of SpE was investigated in vitro. SpE was subjected to HPLC for standardization and quantification of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol.
In a study published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2017), SpE was shown to reduce levels of IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-10 and to modulate gene expression. This study provided evidence for the popular use of S. paniculatum in inflammation, and the researchers noted that more studies are needed to better understand the detailed mechanism of action.
4.3 Spasmolytic Mechanisms
The crude ethanol extract from S. paniculatum aerial parts was approximately 2-fold more potent in antagonizing phasic contractions induced with histamine (IC50 = 63.7 ± 3.5 µg/mL) than carbachol (IC50 = 129.3 ± 14.1 µg/mL). The extract presents antidiarrheal activity in mice related to the inhibition of small intestinal motility and secretion, as well as nonselective spasmolytic activity on the guinea pig ileum.
4.4 Hepatoprotective Mechanisms
ESI-MS/MS data allowed identification of alkaloids not previously reported and permitted redefinition of the initial open-ring fragmentation mechanism of steroidal alkaloids with the jurubidine moiety. These results allowed identification of seven steroidal alkaloids from jurubeba and confirmed a significant hepatoprotective effect, corroborating its traditional use.
5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
5.1 Gastroprotection and Anti-ulcer Activity
Evidence level: Preclinical (animal/in vitro only); no published human clinical trials identified.
A 2002 study sought to validate the traditional use of the plant as a digestive aid. The root, stem, flower, leaf, and fruit of the plant were found to have anti-ulcer activity. A water extract of the root given orally to mice inhibited gastric acid secretion induced by stress and various chemical agents, as well as prevented gastric lesions from developing. Other extracts were found to inhibit gastric acid secretion in mice with the ulcer-causing bacterium H. pylori.
In another study, rats with acetic acid-induced gastric ulcers were given a water extract of jurubeba. The extract enabled acceleration of chronic gastric lesion healing.
Different doses (31.25–500 mg/kg) of ethanolic extract of leaves from S. paniculatum were evaluated against gastric ulcer induced by ethanol in rats. The lower dose of extract able to promote an antiulcer effect was 125 mg/kg.
Collectively, the results validate folk use of Solanum paniculatum L. plant to treat gastric disorders. However, all of the research on jurubeba has been done in Brazil, as the plant and its medicinal uses are not well known outside of Brazil. No randomized controlled human trials have been published in the peer-reviewed literature on this indication.
5.2 Hepatoprotective (Liver-Protective) Activity
Evidence level: Preclinical; supported by pharmacopoeial recognition in Brazil.
Solanum paniculatum has been extensively studied mainly because of its protective effects on the liver and antisecretory gastric properties.
Some medicinal plants share both a large number of citations and scientific evidence to corroborate their hepatoprotective effects, including Solanum paniculatum, Baccharis crispa, and Phyllanthus niruri, which could be of interest for developing new phytomedicines.
In vitro and animal studies suggest that extracts from jurubeba may reduce oxidative stress and support liver function by modulating specific enzymes and biochemical pathways, lending support to its traditional applications as a remedy for liver ailments.
A 2019 study published in Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro / Brazil's National School of Public Health) evaluated the chemical composition and the hepatoprotective and analgesic activities of S. paniculatum leaf extracts. No human clinical trial data have been published for the hepatoprotective indication.
5.3 Antidiarrheal and Spasmolytic Activity
Evidence level: Preclinical (animal); no human clinical trials identified.
Researchers investigated whether the crude ethanol extract from S. paniculatum aerial parts presents toxicological, antidiarrheal, and spasmolytic activities. The crude ethanol extract did not produce in vitro or in vivo toxicity and showed dose-dependent antidiarrheal activity, inhibiting equipotently both defecation frequency (ED50 = 340.3 ± 35.1 mg/kg) and liquid stool formation (ED50 = 370.1 ± 19.4 mg/kg) in mice.
The crude ethanol extract from S. paniculatum aerial parts did not inhibit normal intestinal transit, even though it showed a dose-dependent reduction of both castor oil-induced intestinal transit (Emax = 36.9 ± 1.3%, ED50 = 242.0 ± 8.6 mg/kg) and intestinal fluid content (Emax = 74.8 ± 2.4%, ED50 = 328.9 ± 15.9 mg/kg).
5.4 Anti-inflammatory Activity
Evidence level: In vitro only; no animal or human clinical trial data identified for this specific endpoint.
A study published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2017) noted that S. paniculatum is used in folk medicine for the treatment of gastritis, bronchitis, and fever; that it possesses antibiotic and antioxidant activity and modulatory effects on gastric acid secretion; and hypothesized that the fruit hexane extract possesses anti-inflammatory effects in vitro. SpE was subjected to HPLC for standardization and quantification of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol. Spleen cells from BALB/c mice were cultivated, stimulated with pokeweed mitogen (PWM) and exposed to 15, 30, and 60 μg/mL of SpE. Levels of IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-10 in culture supernatants were assessed by ELISA, and gene expression of T-bet and GATA3 was assessed by qPCR.
5.5 Antimicrobial and Anti-biofilm Activity
Evidence level: In vitro only.
Scientific studies have ascertained antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, molluscicidal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, diuretic, antidiarrheal, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, and antiulcer activities in jurubeba extracts, though the majority of these are in vitro findings.
A study evaluated the antibacterial action of S. paniculatum root extract on endogenous oral bacteria in planktonic form, including Streptococcus mitis, S. mutans, S. sanguinis, S. oralis, S. salivarius, and Lactobacillus casei. The extract showed a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 7.81 mg/mL, minimum inhibitory concentration of adherence (MICA) of 62.5 mg/mL, and bactericidal concentration of 500 mg/mL in 2 h of contact with S. mutans.
5.6 Antileishmanial Activity
Evidence level: In vitro only; preliminary.
Researchers developed an analytical method for the quantification of eight saponins present in the 70% ethanol extract from the leaves using UHPLC-MS. The eight spirostanic saponins were screened for in vitro antileishmanial activity against promastigote and amastigote forms of Leishmania (L.) amazonensis.
Substances 1, 2, and 3 were found to be the most active compounds, with IC50 values of 8.51 ± 4.38, 10.75 ± 6.85, and 10.45 ± 4.21 μM, respectively, against promastigote forms. The cytotoxic test evidenced low toxicity in murine macrophage cells. These findings show that saponins 1–3 should be evaluated in further studies for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis.
5.7 Lipid Metabolism
Evidence level: Preclinical, studied in the context of a multi-herb formulation (Ierobina®).
Ierobina® is a Brazilian phytopharmaceutical product indicated for the treatment of dyspepsia. The formulation contains the hydroethanolic extracts of Solanum paniculatum L. (Solanaceae), Remijia ferruginea D.C. (Rubiaceae), Jacaranda caroba D.C. (Bignoniaceae), and Erythraea centaurium (L.) Borkh. (Gentianaceae). A 2005 study in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology (Botion et al.) investigated the effects of Ierobina® on lipid metabolism and intestinal tonus; however, because the product contains multiple plant extracts, the effects cannot be attributed solely to S. paniculatum.
5.8 Hypotensive Activity
Evidence level: Preliminary animal data only.
Animal studies with cats have indicated that water extracts and alcohol extracts of jurubeba lowered blood pressure, while only the water extract increased respiration. No human clinical data are available for this endpoint.
6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Jurubeba
- Gastrointestinal system: Anti-ulcer, antisecretory gastric, antidiarrheal, antispasmodic, carminative, digestive stimulant, and eupeptic actions. Supported by multiple preclinical studies in rodents.
- Hepatobiliary system: Hepatoprotective and cholagogue use, pharmacopoeially recognized in Brazil for liver disorders.
- Immune and inflammatory system: In vitro cytokine modulation (IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10), downregulation of NFKB, T-bet, and GATA3 gene expression.
- Hematological system: Traditionally used for anemia; listed in the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia specifically for this indication.
- Infectious and parasitic disease: In vitro antibacterial activity against oral pathogens; preliminary in vitro antileishmanial activity against Leishmania amazonensis.
- Cardiovascular system: Preliminary hypotensive activity observed in animal models with water and ethanol extracts.
- Urinary system: Traditional use as a diuretic, documented in folk medicine records; not confirmed in controlled studies.
7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies
The plant is a component of various pharmaceutical formulations including syrups, infusions or decoctions, ethanolic extracts, and elixirs.
The following dosages and preparations have been reported specifically in peer-reviewed scientific studies:
- Aqueous root extract, oral, mice (antisecretory/anti-ulcer): ED50 value of 1.2 g/kg body weight, administered orally.
- Ethanolic leaf extract, oral, rats (antiulcer): Different doses ranging from 31.25 to 500 mg/kg were evaluated against ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats. The lowest dose able to promote an antiulcer effect was 125 mg/kg.
- Crude ethanol extract of aerial parts, oral, mice (antidiarrheal): Antidiarrheal activity inhibiting defecation frequency (ED50 = 340.3 ± 35.1 mg/kg) and liquid stool formation (ED50 = 370.1 ± 19.4 mg/kg) in mice.
- Crude ethanol extract of aerial parts, intestinal transit model (spasmolytic): Dose-dependent reduction of castor oil-induced intestinal transit (ED50 = 242.0 ± 8.6 mg/kg) and intestinal fluid content (ED50 = 328.9 ± 15.9 mg/kg).
- Ierobina® (multi-herb formulation containing S. paniculatum), oral, rats (toxicology): Acute toxicity of Ierobina® was evaluated in mice at single doses of 2,100 mg/kg, 6,300 mg/kg, and 12,600 mg/kg by gavage, and chronic effects in rats were evaluated at doses of 2,800 mg/kg and 5,600 mg/kg per day orally for 180 days.
- Fruit hexane extract, in vitro (anti-inflammatory): Spleen cells were exposed to 15, 30, and 60 μg/mL of SpE.
- Root extract, in vitro (antibacterial): The extract showed a MIC of 7.81 mg/mL, a MICA of 62.5 mg/mL, and a bactericidal concentration of 500 mg/mL against S. mutans.
No standardized human dosage has been established in the peer-reviewed literature. All dosages above are from preclinical (animal or in vitro) research and are not directly applicable to humans.
8. Safety Considerations
8.1 Acute and Chronic Toxicology (Ierobina®)
In a formal toxicology study, Ierobina® (which contains S. paniculatum extract among other herbs) was administered by gavage in mice at single doses of 2,100 mg/kg, 6,300 mg/kg, and 12,600 mg/kg, and chronically in rats at 2,800 mg/kg and 5,600 mg/kg per day for 180 days. The product had low acute toxicity; all observed alterations were reversible and no animal died during the experiments.
In chronic toxicological studies, Ierobina® administration for 180 days did not cause any changes in hematological and biochemical parameters, with the exception of decreasing the levels of alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, and creatinine. Histological evaluation of kidney, liver, and other selected organs showed normal architecture, suggesting no morphological disturbances. Considering these results and the fact that Ierobina® has been commercialized for decades in Brazil without any notified case of toxicity, the product appears to be safe for human use. It must be noted, however, that this finding applies to the multi-herb formulation and not to isolated S. paniculatum extract specifically.
8.2 Toxicology of the Plant Itself (Aerial Parts)
The crude ethanol extract from S. paniculatum aerial parts did not produce in vitro or in vivo toxicity in the study by Clementino-Neto et al. (2016, Planta Medica), which examined both antidiarrheal efficacy and safety endpoints simultaneously.
No toxic signs were observed following administration of different extracts up to 2 g/kg body weight orally in mice.
8.3 Glycoalkaloid Content and Cautions
Studies have revealed that consumption of Solanum paniculatum L. deserves caution due to its content of natural toxins such as steroidal glycoalkaloids, steroidal saponins, and flavonoids. Steroidal glycoalkaloids — a class found across the Solanum genus — are known to have dose-dependent toxicity in mammals, and the specific glycoalkaloid concentrations in jurubeba preparations can vary considerably by plant part, geographic origin, and preparation method.
8.4 Genotoxicity
A study published in the Journal of Medicinal Food (2010) by Vieira et al. assessed cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of S. paniculatum leaf and fruit extracts using the in vivo micronucleus test in mice. This work, "Solanum paniculatum L. leaf and fruit extracts: assessment of modulation of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity by micronucleus test in mice" (J. Med. Food, 2010 Dec; 13(6):1424–30), evaluated genotoxic potential; these findings are part of the published safety dataset, though results are limited to animal models.
8.5 Nomenclature-Related Safety Risk
Many species of Solanum are known by the Brazilian population as "jurubeba," but the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia describes the species Solanum paniculatum L. as the true "jurubeba." The use of related but distinct species under the same common name (e.g., S. fastigiatum, S. lycocarpum) creates a risk of inadvertent substitution. The phytochemical profiles, potency, and safety data of these related species may differ materially.
8.6 Interactions
No specific drug–herb interaction studies for jurubeba have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature. Further biological activities such as antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic effects have been described for S. paniculatum, suggesting a broad spectrum of biological activity that could theoretically interact with pharmaceutical agents acting on overlapping pathways (e.g., gastric acid suppressants, anti-inflammatory drugs, hepatically metabolized drugs), but no formal interaction studies have been conducted in humans.
8.7 Overall Evidence Summary on Safety
Comprehensive clinical trials on jurubeba in human populations are limited. The current body of research, while promising, is primarily preclinical. Jurubeba's use for digestive support is primarily justified by traditional practices, with only modest scientific investigation available. While it is a recognized folk remedy for digestive issues, the strength of evidence supporting its effectiveness is limited.
References
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