Kachnar

Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata L.) is a species of flowering plant belonging to the Fabaceae (Leguminosae) family, commonly known in English as mountain ebony or the orchid tree. Its accepted botanical name is Bauhinia variegata Linn., with recognised synonyms including Bauhinia candida Roxb. and Phanera variegata (L.) Benth. Other common names across the Indian subcontinent and beyond include Kaanchana, Swet-kanchan, Camel's foot tree, Gurial, Kachnal, and Koiralo.

The word kachnar derives from Sanskrit, where it means "a beautiful glowing lady." The characteristic two-lobed leaves, which resemble a camel's hoof print, earned the plant its Latin genus name Bauhinia.

The species is native to South Asia — including India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh — and is also found in Southeast Asia, China, and Africa. In India it is distributed throughout the country, ascending to an altitude of 1,300 metres in the Himalayas. It is a deciduous, fast-growing flowering tree distributed mainly in tropical countries as well as the Carnatic and Deccan regions of southern India and on stony hills.

Three closely related species are commonly grouped under the kachnar name and used medicinally: B. variegata (white to purplish flowers), B. purpurea (purple/pink flowers, known as Lal Kachnar), and B. tomentosa (yellow flowers), the latter found primarily in southern India, Assam, and Bihar. For most medicinal purposes, the white-to-purplish Bauhinia variegata is the primary species used.

Morphologically, B. variegata is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree, brownish-grey in colour. It grows up to 12 metres in height, featuring a spreading crown and greenish-brown bark. Parts used for medicinal purposes include flower buds, flowers, stem bark, stem, leaves, seeds, and roots.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ayurveda

The plant has a long history of use in Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and traditional Chinese medicine for treating ailments such as diabetes, inflammation, gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory problems, and skin diseases. In Ayurveda, the plant parts are used in various medical formulations: stem bark is used in treating disorders known as Galaganda (goitre), Gandamala (cervical lymphadenitis), Arbuda (tumours), Kapha-Pitta disorders, and Ashthila (glandular swellings); flowers are used for Pitthaghna, Rakta pradaraghna, Kaasghna, and Kshyaghna conditions.

In classical Ayurvedic categorisation, Kanchanara appears in the Charaka Samhita under the Vamanopaga group (herbs useful in emesis therapy) and in the Sushruta Samhita under Kashayavarga, the group of astringent-tasting herbs.

In Ayurveda, the drug Kancanara is considered an excellent medicine for Galaganda and Gandamala. The fresh bark mixed with Sunthi (ginger) is pounded with sour gruel and given in Gandamala; the decoction of the bark with Sunthi powder is similarly given for the same condition. Decoction of Kanchnar bark combined with Triphala (the three myrobalans: Terminalia chebula, T. bellirica, and Emblica officinalis) and Pippali churna (powder of Piper longum) is recommended in classical texts for Gandamala and Galaganda (goitre).

Traditionally, B. variegata is used in bronchitis, leprosy, and tumours; the stem bark is used as an astringent, tonic, and anthelmintic; infusion of the leaves is used as a laxative and for piles; and dried buds are used in the treatment of worm infestations, tumours, diarrhoea, and piles.

2.2 Kanchnar Guggulu — The Classical Compound Formulation

The best-known Ayurvedic formulation containing kachnar is Kanchnar Guggulu (also spelled Kanchanar Guggulu), a classical polyherbal preparation that combines the bark of Bauhinia variegata with Guggulu (the resin of Commiphora wightii). The formulation is standardised in classical Ayurvedic texts including the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. The preparation involves brewing a decoction of Kanchnar bark, mixing it with purified Guggulu, and then combining it with other powdered herbs to form tablets.

The formulation combines B. variegata bark with Guggulu and synergistic herbs known for their anti-inflammatory, detoxifying, and decongestant properties; traditionally it is used to manage conditions such as benign tumours, cystic swellings, PCOS, and ulcers. Kanchnar Guggulu traces its documented roots to classical Samhitas compiled between approximately 1000 BCE and 200 CE; in the Charaka Samhita's chapter on Shothahara (anti-inflammatory) formulations, Kanchnar bark was prized for resolving swellings and masses.

2.3 Food Use and Cultural Significance

Kachnar — particularly the edible buds — is widely used as a culinary ingredient in many South Asian cuisines. Traditional kachnar curry is prepared using kachnar buds, yogurt, onions, and native spices. The buds are also eaten as a stir-fried vegetable and used to make achaar (pickle) in many parts of the Indian subcontinent.

The tree is considered sacred in Hinduism, where it is called Kovidara and is symbolically depicted on the Dharma Dhwaja flag. In Nepal, where the plant is known as koiralo, the flower and buds are used to make Nepalese-style achaar, which forms an important part of the meal served during the Ghode Jatra festival.

3. Key Phytochemical Constituents

Each plant part — flowers, stem, seed, root, bark, and leaves — contains numerous phytochemicals including flavonoids, tannins, kaempferol, terpenoids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, and quercetin, which are considered to play a vital role in the plant's biological activities.

3.1 Flavonoids

The chemical composition of the genus Bauhinia shows a high proportion of flavonoids, terpenes, steroids, and alkaloids. From the stem, isolation of lupeol, 5,7-dimethoxyflavonone-4-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, β-sitosterol, and kaempferol-3-glucoside has been reported.

From methanol extract of the bark, pure fractions characterised as kaempferol, stigmasterol, protocatechuic acid-methyl ester (PCA-ME), and protocatechuic acid (PCA) have been isolated via silica gel column chromatography.

The stem contains β-sitosterol, lupeol, kaempferol-3-glucoside, and 5,7-dihydroxy and 5,7-dimethoxy flavanone-4-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-β-D-glucopyranosides. The pale violet flowers contain cyanidine-3-glucoside, malvidin-3-glucoside, malvidin-3-diglucoside, and peonidin-3-diglucoside. The white flowers contain kaempferol-3-galactoside and kaempferol-3-rhamnoglucoside. Five flavonoids identified from different parts of B. variegata include quercetin, rutin, and apigenin-7-O-glucoside.

The leaves contain a particularly rich array of flavonoids: quercetin, kaempferol-3-glucoside, apigenin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, lupeol, rutin, naringenin, luteolin, quercetin 3-methyl ether, isoquercitrin, chalcone, 20-hydroxy-4′,6′-dimethoxy-3,4-methylenedioxy chalcone, kaempferol-3-O-D-glucopyranoside, and kaempferol-3-O-β-L-rhamnoside, among others, along with fat glycosides, phenolics, tannins, alkaloids, saponins, β-sitosterol, lignins, and terpenoids.

A comprehensive review identified a total of 164 flavonoids from the genus Bauhinia, comprising 76 flavonoid aglycones and 88 flavonoid glycosides. Flavones dominated the aglycone subdivision, followed by flavonols, while biflavonoids showed the least occurrence.

3.2 Proanthocyanidins and Phenolic Acids

The plant is also a source of proanthocyanidins, including epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, and their oligomers and epiafzelechin trimer, as well as unsaturated fatty acids, mono-, di-, and tri-hydroxy fatty acids, carbohydrates, saponins, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, tannins, amino acids, and proteins.

3.3 Terpenoids and Sterols

The presence of lupeol in the bark of B. variegata has been specifically associated with anti-inflammatory action. BV stem bark also produces 5,7-dihydroxy and 5,7-dimethoxy flavanone-4-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-β-D-glucopyranosides, kaempferol-3-glucoside, lupeol, and β-sitosterol.

3.4 Seeds and Roots

Seeds contain alkaloids, flavonoids, ascorbic acid, proteins, carbohydrates, and amino acids including aspartic acid, histidine, proline, threonine, serine, glycine, alanine, phenylalanine, glutamic acid, lysine, tyrosine, and methionine. The fatty oils in B. variegata seeds include oleic, linolenic, myristic, palmitic, stearic, nervonic, margaric, behenic, linoleic, eicosapentaenoic, palmitoleic, and arachidic acids.

Five compounds — β-sitosterol, piperine, piperolein B, retrofractamide A, and dehydropipernonaline — have been isolated from B. variegata roots using chromatographic procedures.

3.5 Lectins

The lectin of B. variegata (nBVL) has at least two isoforms (BVL-1 and BVL-2); both are galactose ligands with a molecular mass of 32 kDa and are structurally similar to other Caesalpinoideae lectins.

3.6 Quantification in Flowers and Buds

Bud powder of B. variegata has been reported to contain high total phenolic content (3,617.20 ± 53.07 mg GAE/100 g), flavonoid content (1,233.40 ± 24.07 mg QE/100 g), and DPPH antioxidant activity of 449.71 ± 15.07 mg TE/100 g. HPLC analysis confirms that flavonoids and phenolic acids are present in good concentration, with quercetin being a prominent identified fraction.

Analysis of methanol flower extracts of B. variegata with HPLC revealed a significant quantity of quercetin at 3.5 mg/g.

4. Mechanisms of Action

The therapeutic value of B. variegata is closely associated with its metabolites, which function through several mechanisms including modulation of oxidative stress, lipid metabolism, gut microbiota, and inflammation pathways.

• Antidiabetic mechanisms: Insulin-like proteins present in the leaves of B. variegata have been proposed to be responsible for glucose metabolism effects. An in vitro study showed that ethanolic extract of B. variegata leaves and its active constituent roseoside increased the release of insulin in beta-cell line INS-1. The n-hexane extract of roots showed antidiabetic activity with 60.80 ± 0.20% inhibition of alpha-amylase.
• Anti-inflammatory mechanisms: The presence of lupeol in the bark is specifically identified as responsible for anti-inflammatory action. The plant contains antioxidative alkaloids, flavonoids, and phenolic substances that are considered mainly responsible for defence mechanisms against oxidative and inflammatory processes.
• Antioxidant mechanisms: Ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the stem bark and root have been assessed for antioxidant activity by scavenging of DPPH, superoxide, nitric oxide, and hydrogen peroxide free radicals, with results compared to standard antioxidants ascorbic acid and BHA.
• Anticancer/cytotoxic mechanisms: The mechanism of cytotoxic action of protocatechuic acid (PCA) from bark has been proposed to involve antioxidant activity, influencing metabolism phases 1 and 2 of various carcinogens by blocking specific carcinogen binding sites on DNA, thereby preventing adduct formation that could result in mutations and neoplastic transformations.
• Hepatoprotective mechanisms: Hepatoprotective effects have been demonstrated through studies showing the plant's ability to mitigate liver toxicity induced by chemicals, lowering serum liver enzymes.
• Immunomodulatory mechanism: Both aqueous and ethanol extracts of the stem bark caused significant dose-dependent reduction in total leukocyte and eosinophil counts in milk-induced leukocytosis and eosinophilia animal models.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

Important methodological note: The large majority of studies on B. variegata are preclinical — conducted in animal models (primarily rodents) or in vitro cell systems. As of the available published literature, there are no published large-scale randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in humans establishing clinical efficacy for any indication. Evidence quality for all areas below should be regarded as preliminary and preclinical unless otherwise stated.

5.1 Glycaemic Control and Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder, represents a global public health burden. The World Health Organisation has long recommended investigation of herbal treatments for diabetes mellitus. B. variegata Linn (Fabaceae), vernacularly called Kachnara, is an herbaceous medicinal plant found throughout India that has received particular attention in this area.

In animal studies, extracts of B. variegata at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg in streptozotocin (STZ)- and alloxan-induced diabetic rats reduced elevated blood glucose levels by increasing glucose metabolism. Treatment with ethanolic extract of B. variegata leaves at a dose of 300 mg/kg lowered blood glucose levels and improved lipid profile. Treatment with ethanolic extract of bark at 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg improved blood glucose level by regenerating β-cells in alloxan-induced rats.

In a study published in the Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics (PMC3284043), hyperglycaemia was induced in fasted rats by single intravenous dose of alloxan monohydrate (65 mg/kg) and blood glucose was estimated at 0, 1, 2, 3, and 24 hours, and on the third and seventh day after administration of extracts. A major constituent, roseoside, demonstrated enhanced insulin release from the beta-cell line INS-1.

In a preclinical neuroprotection study (PMC10641339), the objective was to investigate protection against STZ-induced diabetic neuropathy; diabetic rats were treated with B. variegata at 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg doses for 28 days. BV dramatically reduced blood glucose and HbA1c levels; levels of superoxide dismutase and catalase rose significantly; lipid peroxidation and serum nitrite levels were drastically decreased; and the study concluded that BV has anti-hyperglycaemic and anti-inflammatory effects on diabetic neuropathy.

In another rodent model, two doses (200 and 400 mg/kg body weight) of methanolic leaf and bark extracts of B. variegata were given orally for 22 days; results revealed strong antidiabetic activity at both doses, with 400 mg/kg showing the highest activity.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (animal models and in vitro only). No published human clinical trials have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature. The mechanistic data — including alpha-amylase inhibition, insulinotropic effects via roseoside, and insulin-like leaf proteins — provide plausible biological rationale, but translation to clinical efficacy in humans is unestablished.

5.2 Antioxidant Activity

Ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the stem bark and root of B. variegata have been assessed for in vitro antioxidant activity by measuring total reducing power and by scavenging of DPPH, superoxide, nitric oxide, and hydrogen peroxide free radicals. Results indicated that alcoholic and aqueous extracts can effectively decrease plasma cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL, and VLDL and increase plasma HDL levels.

Phytochemicals present in various B. variegata leaf extracts possess potent antibacterial activity and cytotoxic potential against human cancer cell lines; additionally, leaf extracts have shown capability to combat oxidative damage through iron-binding, radical neutralisation, and reducing power ability.

In phytochemical analysis, methanolic extract of leaves and bark showed the highest phenolic and flavonoid contents. Kaempferol isolated from the bark has been reported to have very significant antioxidant activity; it is a flavonoid frequently found in plant-based foods and in plant parts used in folk medicine.

Evidence strength: Primarily in vitro and animal model data. Multiple studies consistently demonstrate strong free-radical scavenging capacity. No human interventional trials available.

5.3 Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

The leaves of Bauhinia species have gained recognition for their efficacy in the management of inflammation and pain; these activities are attributed to the presence of flavonoids. Flavanone glycoside from root has been specifically reported to have anti-inflammatory activity.

In the STZ-neuropathy study, BV treatment at 200–400 mg/kg in rats raised superoxide dismutase and catalase levels significantly and drastically decreased lipid peroxidation and serum nitrite — biochemical markers consistent with anti-inflammatory action.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only. Anti-inflammatory effects are mechanistically linked to lupeol and flavonoid content, with supporting in vitro and rodent data, but no RCTs in humans.

5.4 Hepatoprotective Activity

The ethanolic extract of the stem bark of B. variegata at dosages of 100 and 200 mg/kg orally demonstrated hepatoprotective activity against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats, decreasing levels of AST, ALT, ALP, and GGTP.

Additional studies revealed the plant's efficacy in mitigating liver toxicity induced by chemicals, thereby lowering serum liver enzymes. In one PMC study (PMC7785441), flower extracts of B. variegata were specifically investigated for hepatoprotective effects in rat models with findings on liver enzyme normalisation and histopathological improvement noted.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (rodent models using chemical-induced hepatotoxicity). Results are consistent across independent studies. No published human data.

5.5 Antitumour and Anticancer Activity

The antitumour activity of the ethanol extract of Bauhinia variegata (EBV) has been evaluated against Dalton's ascitic lymphoma (DAL) in Swiss albino mice. A significant enhancement of mean survival time of EBV-treated tumour-bearing mice was found relative to the control group; EBV treatment was found to enhance peritoneal cell counts and was able to reverse changes in haematological parameters, protein, and PCV (packed cell volume) consequent to tumour inoculation after 14 days.

The ethanolic extract of B. variegata stem has shown antitumour activity against both Dalton's Ascytic lymphoma and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in Swiss albino mice.

n-Hexane and ethyl acetate extracts of roots and stem showed antiproliferative activity against human breast cancer MCF-7 cell line with IC₅₀ values ranging between 12.10–14.20 µg/mL. Among root isolates, dehydropipernonaline (compound 5) exhibited significant bioactivity against all tested cancer cell lines, while retrofractamide A (compound 4) demonstrated in vitro activity specifically against MCF-7 cancer cell lines.

DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays and MTT cytotoxicity assay were used to evaluate bark compounds against C-6 glioma rat brain, MCF-7 breast cancer, and HCT-15 colon cancer cell lines; the isolated compounds were found to have significant antioxidant and cytotoxic activity.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only (animal tumour models and in vitro cell line studies). Cytotoxicity data against cancer cell lines is present but no human studies exist. Results should not be extrapolated to clinical anti-cancer efficacy.

5.6 Antimicrobial Activity

Available results confirm antibacterial activity of B. variegata and support traditional use in therapy of bacterial infections, with the potential for further characterisation of antibacterial compounds to identify lead molecules against various pathogenic microorganisms.

In disc diffusion assays, petroleum ether and chloroform fractions exhibited considerable inhibition against Klebsiella pneumoniae; several other extracts also showed antibacterial activity against pathogenic strains of E. coli, Proteus spp., and Pseudomonas spp. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values of potential extracts ranged between 3.5 and 28.40 mg/mL, with the lowest MBC (3.5 mg/mL) recorded for ethanol extract against Pseudomonas spp.

Most extracts of B. variegata displayed moderately high antibacterial and antifungal activities across evaluation studies.

Evidence strength: In vitro only. No clinical antimicrobial trials in humans.

5.7 Hypolipidaemic Activity

Antihyperlipidaemic activity has been evaluated in Triton WR-1339-induced hyperlipidaemic albino rats by estimating serum triglyceride, VLDL, cholesterol, LDL, and HDL levels. Results indicated that alcoholic and aqueous extracts of B. variegata Linn. can effectively decrease plasma cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL, and VLDL and increase plasma HDL levels.

Evidence strength: In vitro and animal model data. No human trials available.

5.8 Wound Healing

In excision and incision wound models in albino Wistar rats, the wound-healing activity of ethanolic and aqueous concentrates of the root of B. variegata was assessed at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight; both concentrates produced noteworthy wound healing by both models, with activity equivalent to the standard treatment (framycetin) in the excision wound model.

The lectin of B. variegata (nBVL) and its recombinant isoform (rBVL-1) were evaluated for wound healing potential in mice using surgically created dorsal skin wounds; seven groups of mice were treated topically for 12 days with lectin, d-galactose, BSA, or saline, with wound size, contraction rate, epithelialisation rate, and histopathological findings as parameters. Wound closure was fastest in animals treated with rBVL-1 at post-operative day 7, and nBVL was more effective than controls.

Evidence strength: Animal models and in vitro. The lectin wound-healing study is mechanistically informative but all evidence remains preclinical.

5.9 Immunomodulatory Activity

The stem bark of B. variegata is used traditionally in the treatment of asthma, jaundice, tuberculosis, leprosy, and skin diseases. In an experimental study, both aqueous (BVA) and ethanol (BVE) stem bark extracts caused significant dose-dependent reduction in total leukocyte and eosinophil counts in milk-induced leukocytosis and eosinophilia in albino mice, suggesting antieosinophilic activity.

Evidence strength: Single rodent study. Preliminary preclinical data only.

5.10 Neuroprotection

BV contains antioxidative alkaloids, flavonoids, and phenolic substances considered mainly responsible for defence mechanisms against STZ-induced diabetic neuropathy. In the STZ neuropathy rat model, BV treatment dramatically reduced blood glucose and HbA1c, significantly raised superoxide dismutase and catalase, and drastically decreased lipid peroxidation and serum nitrite levels.

Evidence strength: Single preclinical study in rodents. Highly preliminary.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Kachnar

• Endocrine / Thyroid system: Sanskrit names for the plant include Gandari, indicating its Ayurvedic use in cervical lymphadenitis and thyroid complications. Both B. variegata and B. purpurea are recognised in pharmacological reviews for thyroid hormone-regulating effects.
• Metabolic / Glycaemic: The leaves of many Bauhinia species are used in antidiabetic treatments by many populations around the world. Multiple animal studies support blood glucose-lowering and lipid-modulating activity (see Section 5.1 and 5.7 above).
• Hepatic (Liver): Preclinical data indicate B. variegata is a promising hepatoprotective agent.
• Immune / Lymphatic system: In Ayurveda, stem bark is used for Gandamala (cervical lymphadenitis) and related lymphatic disorders. Immunomodulatory and antieosinophilic effects have been demonstrated preclinically.
• Integumentary (Skin): Research has revealed efficacy in wound healing, with significant improvements in healing rates comparable to standard treatments in animal models.
• Gastrointestinal: Infusion of the leaves is used as a laxative and for piles; dried buds are used in diarrhoea treatment in traditional practice.
• Oncology (preclinical): Antitumour activity has been documented against multiple murine tumour models and human cancer cell lines in vitro (see Section 5.5).
• Cardiovascular / Lipid: BV has been noted for cardioprotective and antihyperlipidaemic activity in biological studies.
• Renal: Nephroprotective activity has been reported among the documented therapeutic properties of B. variegata.
• Respiratory: Stem bark has traditional use in the treatment of asthma.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are drawn directly from the cited scientific and traditional sources and reflect doses used in preclinical animal studies or traditional Ayurvedic practice. They are not recommendations for human use and no standardised clinical doses have been established in peer-reviewed human trials.

7.1 Animal Study Dosages (Rodent Models)

• B. variegata extract at 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg doses for 28 days in STZ-induced diabetic neuropathy rats.
• Stem bark at 200 and 400 mg/kg in STZ- and alloxan-induced diabetic rats.
• Ethanolic leaf extract at 300 mg/kg in diabetic rodent models.
• Bark ethanolic extract at 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg for pancreatic β-cell regeneration in alloxan-induced rats.
• Ethanolic stem bark extract at 100 and 200 mg/kg orally for hepatoprotection against carbon tetrachloride.
• Aqueous and ethanolic root extracts at 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight in wound-healing models.
• Stem bark extracts (BVE and BVA) at 100 and 200 mg/kg for immunomodulatory effects (selected from a dose range of 200 to 2,000 mg/kg).

7.2 Traditional Ayurvedic Preparations and Indicative Doses

• Bark powder: 250 mg – 3 g in divided doses; water decoction/kashayam/infusion: 5–10 ml in divided doses per day.
• A standard Ayurvedic decoction is prepared by adding 10 g of coarse bark powder to 160 ml of water, boiling and reducing to 40 ml. This decoction is administered in a dose of 10–20 ml, once or twice daily, 30 minutes before food, along with 1–2 grams of ginger.
• An alternative decoction preparation simmers 10–15 g of coarsely chopped bark in 400 ml water down to 100 ml, to be drunk in two divided doses (morning and evening).

7.3 Acute Toxicity Reference Doses

• In an acute toxicity study conducted per OECD guidelines, methanol extract of leaves (MEBV) was administered orally to female Swiss albino mice at 300 and 2,000 mg/kg; for repeated dose toxicity, Wistar rats of either sex were administered 1,000 mg/kg/day for 28 days.
• In another study, the acute oral lethal dose (LD) was estimated to be greater than 5,000 mg/kg in rodents.
• In an OECD-guideline acute toxicity evaluation, single doses of 150, 350, and 2,000 mg/kg body weight of hydroalcoholic extract were administered to healthy adult Wistar rats.

8. Safety Considerations

8.1 Preclinical Toxicology

In acute oral toxicity studies, administration of methanol extract of B. variegata leaves at selected doses (including up to 2,000 mg/kg) did not produce any mortality or significant changes in general behaviour in mice. In repeated-dose toxicity studies, no mortality was observed at the selected dose (1,000 mg/kg/day) during a 28-day study period.

Following acute oral administration of 2,500 mg/kg crude extracts of B. variegata to Swiss albino mice, no mortalities or evidence of adverse effects were observed. Based on the outcome of acute toxicity studies in experimental mice, the crude extracts of B. variegata could be regarded as safe in experimental mice.

Close examination of behavioural and physiological parameters — including state of skin and fur, eye and mucous membrane appearance, salivation, stool, sleep, somatomotor activity, and overall behaviour — revealed no deviations or negative responses at any tested dose. No acute toxic effects were observed, and the lack of mortality at the highest dose indicates the LD₅₀ of B. variegata extract is higher than 2,000 mg/kg, making it practically non-toxic in terms of OECD classification.

8.2 Absence of Human Safety Data

Future research directions identified in published reviews include the need for clinical studies to evaluate safety and efficacy, formulation development, and toxicological studies in humans. No published human clinical trials with systematic adverse event monitoring have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature for B. variegata as an isolated intervention.

8.3 Pregnancy and Lactation

In traditional practice, use during pregnancy or lactation is advised against due to lack of data on reproductive toxicity; some traditional practitioners warn the plant may affect uterine tone. No peer-reviewed human reproductive safety data have been identified.

8.4 Interaction Potential

Based on the pharmacological profile documented in preclinical research — particularly antidiabetic (alpha-amylase inhibition, insulinotropic effects) and hypolipidaemic activity — theoretical additive or potentiating interactions with antidiabetic medications and lipid-lowering agents are biologically plausible. Documented pharmacological activities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, and wound-healing effects operate through mechanisms including modulation of oxidative stress, lipid metabolism, and inflammation pathways, suggesting multiple potential interaction pathways. However, no formal human drug-interaction studies have been published.

8.5 Kanchnar Guggulu Formulation

The classical formulation Kanchnar Guggulu is described in traditional Ayurvedic literature for its detoxifying, anti-inflammatory, and hormone-balancing properties, and has been used for centuries to support thyroid health, manage hormonal imbalances, and treat various growths and swellings. As a compound preparation also containing Guggulu (Commiphora wightii) resin, any safety considerations relevant to Guggulu (such as potential interactions with thyroid medications or anticoagulants documented for guggulsterones) should also be considered, though these pertain to the compound formula and not to B. variegata alone.

References

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• PMC3284043 — Antidiabetic activity of stem bark of Bauhinia variegata in alloxan-induced hyperglycemic rats. J Pharmacol Pharmacother. 2012
• PMC10641339 — Neuroprotective effects of Bauhinia variegata in ameliorating diabetic neuropathy and neurodegeneration (2023)
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