Kochia (Kochia scoparia / Bassia scoparia): A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity and Botanical Classification
Nomenclature and Taxonomy
Kochia scoparia (Linn.) Schrad, also called Bassia scoparia (L.) A.J. Scott, is a large annual potherb in the family Chenopodiaceae, widely distributed in Europe and Asia and naturalized in Africa, Australia, and North and South America.
The plant has accumulated several synonyms and common names across its range. Earlier, Kochia scoparia belonged to the genus Kochia; in 1978, they were grouped into the genus Bassia. Kochia scoparia is also called Bassia scoparia, Summer cypress, or Mexican Fireweed. The fruit of Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad., which is also designated Bassia scoparia, Bassia sieversiana or Kochia alata, is administered to treat skin diseases, diabetes mellitus and rheumatoid arthritis in Chinese and Korean traditional medicine.
The Medicinal Part: Kochiae Fructus
Kochiae Fructus (KF) is the fruit of an annual potherb Kochia scoparia (Linn.) Schrad and has been traditionally used for the treatment of diseases in the skin, eyes, and urinary tract for thousands of years in China. Kochiae Fructus is the fruit of Kochia scoparia, which is a spheroidal pentagram with a diameter of 1 to 3 mm. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), it is known by the name Di Fu Zi (地膚子), meaning "earth skin seed." Bassia scoparia, commonly known as Kochia or burning bush, has a longstanding history in traditional medicine, particularly within East Asian herbal practices. Its seeds and aerial parts have been utilized for centuries, especially in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), where it is referred to as "Di Fu Zi."
Botanical Description and Distribution
Kochia (Kochia scoparia) is an erect, annual forb that is part of the Chenopodiaceae or goosefoot family. K. scoparia forms pyramidal or rounded bushes up to 7 feet tall and roots that can reach a depth of at least 8 feet with a horizontal radius of at least 8 feet. Flowering generally occurs from July to September. Stems are usually yellowish-green to green and often turn red with maturity. K. scoparia fruit are utricle fruits with an oval, brown to black seed.
Kochia, a native of Asia, was introduced from Europe to North America, where it has become naturalized across the continent. This species was introduced to America from Eurasia as an ornamental because of its bright red autumn coloration (and sometimes called "burning bush").
Common Forms and Preparations
In autumn, when the fruits of Kochia scoparia are ripe, people gather them, dry them in the sun, take out their fruits, remove impurities, and make them into Chinese herbal medicine. It can be made into decoctions, pills, lotions, or liniments. For topical skin applications, external wash preparations use 15–30 g decocted in water applied to bathe the affected area. The fruits may also be found as standardized dry extracts in modern supplement and cosmetic preparations; the cosmetic INCI name used internationally is Bassia scoparia fruit extract.
Certain varieties are used in traditional medicine, and their dried seeds are prized in Japanese cuisine under the name tonburi or "vegetable caviar" for its texture and appearance. The saponin constituents of the fruit consumed as tonburi were identified in a Japanese pharmacological study as scoparianosides A, B, and C, which were noted for their glucose and alcohol absorption-inhibitory activity. These saponin constituents with glucose and alcohol absorption-inhibitory activity from a food garnish "Tonburi," the fruit of Japanese Kochia scoparia, were characterized, with their structures named scoparianosides A, B, and C, published in Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin.
Stems and young leaves of the plant are edible. The stem and leaves of the plant contained essential nutrients such as protein and fiber, carbohydrates, carotene, vitamin C, vitamin B1 and vitamin B2, nicotinic acid, and trace elements.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)
Kochiae Fructus was first recorded in Shennong Ben Cao Jing (神農本草經) as a "top grade" medicinal material. Up to now, KF has been used in traditional Chinese and Japanese medicine more than 2000 years for the treatment of diseases of the skin, eyes, and urinary tract. It first appeared in Shennong Ben Cao Jing in the late Western Han Dynasty (around 100 BCE).
Kochiae Fructus (named Difu Zi in China), the dried mature fruit of Kochia scoparia (L.), a member of the Chenopodiaceae family, is a traditional Chinese medicine herb that was first classified as a "top-grade" herb in the ancient book "Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica." According to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, it possesses properties of clearing heat, promoting diuresis, dispelling wind, and relieving itch, and is often used to treat skin problems and gonorrhea.
Bassia scoparia has been valued for its cooling and diuretic properties, making it a popular remedy for conditions related to the urinary tract and skin. Practitioners have used it to address issues such as dysuria (painful urination), urinary tract infections, and edema. Its soothing qualities have also made it a favored ingredient in formulations aimed at relieving pruritus (itching) and eczema, often providing comfort for irritated or inflamed skin.
In TCM formulas, Di Fu Zi is categorized among the dampness-draining herbs that relieve stranguria (painful urinary dysfunction). For dysuria, dribbling, difficult and painful urination due to damp-heat in bladder, it is combined with other herbs of clearing heat to treat stranguria; for instance, it is combined with Mu Tong, Qu Mai and Dong Kui Zi in the classical formula Di Fu Zi Tang from Ji Sheng Fang. It has the actions of clearing heat, excreting dampness and dispelling wind. It can dispel wind, clear retained heat and remove dampness from skin, so it is good at alleviating itching and is considered an essential herb for dermatosis.
A variety of prescriptions for psoriatic treatment were documented in ancient Chinese medical books, such as The Peaceful Holy Benevolence Formulae and Taiping Holy Prescriptions for Universal Relief. Clinical analysis of Professor Zhang Bing's prescription patterns for treating itching indicates that Kochiae Fructus is one of the most commonly used herbs for treating this disease.
Korean and Japanese Traditional Medicine
The dried fruit of Kochia scoparia (Chenopodiaceae) is used medicinally in Korea as a main ingredient in traditional herbal formulas indicated for external and internal applications for skin diseases and rheumatoid arthritis. Furthermore, it is frequently administered to treat urticaria in Taiwan.
In Japan, the fruit is used both as a food (tonburi) and as a traditional medicine. Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad (Amaranthaceae), known as a traditional medicine in China, Japan and Korea, is reported to have various biological activities.
Other Traditional Uses
Kochia scoparia has also been mentioned as a treatment for liver disorders and used in traditional medicine for the alleviation of jaundice and edema. Kochia has been used in Chinese and Korean folk medicine as a treatment for skin diseases, diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, and liver conditions. The plant's aerial parts were historically used in some regions for conditions including asthma and cough, as documented in ethnobotanical accounts.
3. Key Chemical Constituents and Active Compounds
Overview of Phytochemical Profile
A total of 25 triterpenoids, 13 flavonoids, 22 carbohydrates, 21 amino acids, 9 organic acids, 49 essential oils, and 14 heterocyclics within KF have been reported. Collectively, a total of 153 compounds have been identified in KF, mainly including triterpenoids, flavonoids, carbohydrates, amino acids, organic acids, and essential oils.
Triterpenoid Saponins (Primary Bioactive Class)
Momordin Ic is the representative triterpene glycoside compound, which is used as a phytochemical marker for the quality control of Kochiae Fructus. Momordin Ic is a bioactive component with a pentacyclic triterpenoid structure that is obtained from plants such as Kochia scoparia and Momordica charantia.
Beyond momordin Ic, the triterpenoid fraction includes a range of oleanolic acid glycosides. Di Fu Zi contains 20-hydroxyecdysone, β-sitosterol, momordin Ic, momordin I, oleanolic acid, oleanolic acid 3-O-glucuronide, oleanolic acid 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 28-O-deglucosyl-chikusetsusaponin V, 2′-O-glucopyranosyl-momordin Ic, chikusetsusaponin V, momordin IIc, kochianoside I–IV, daucosterol, and stigmasterol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, among many other identified compounds.
Research published in a 1997 study of scoparianosides established that specific saponins present in the Japanese food form tonburi also demonstrate glucose and alcohol absorption-inhibitory properties.
Flavonoids
Twelve compounds were isolated and identified from K. scoparia, including tectorigenin, pratensein, 5,2′-dihydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone, iriflogenin, 5-hydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone, fumalic acid, N-trans-feruloylmethoxytyramine, N-transferuloyltyramine, stigmasterol, oleanolic acid, beta-stigmasterol, and daucosterol. Additional flavonoids identified via LC-MS include 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-6,3′-dimethoxyflavone and 5,7,4′-dihydroxy-6-methoxyflavone. Isorhamnetin, quercetin, rutin, isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside, and hyperoside have also been detected.
Alkaloids and Other Phenolic Compounds
A total of twenty compounds were isolated and identified from the fruits of K. scoparia, which indicated the presence of alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids, and sterols in KF. These include six alkaloids, nine polyphenols, three flavonoids, and two sterols, isolated and identified from the ethanol extract of KF by chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques.
Essential Oils
The essential oil within KF is high in fatty acid esters. Using a supercritical CO₂ extraction method combined with GC-MS, eighteen compounds were isolated and identified, most of which were fatty acid esters and aromatic compounds.
Nutritional Constituents (Aerial Parts)
The stem and leaves of the plant contained essential nutrients such as protein and fiber, carbohydrates, carotene, vitamin C, vitamin B1 and vitamin B2, nicotinic acid, and trace elements. KF contains many kinds of amino acids, and current research suggests that certain functional amino acids can play a pharmacological role through the gut-microbiome-immune axis.
4. Pharmacology and Mechanisms of Action
Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms
Pharmacological studies showed that anti-inflammatory activity is a very significant pharmacological activity of KF. The mechanisms of this action have been elucidated through multiple pathways. Among the key marker compounds, momordin Ic, but not 20-hydroxyecdysone and oleanolic acid, had inhibitory effects on the production of inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in LPS-treated RAW264.7 macrophages. The effects of three marker compounds on prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) were also evaluated, and all three compounds significantly reduced PGE2 production in LPS-treated cells.
The total flavonoids of KF have shown an anti-inflammatory effect on the dinitrochlorobenzene-induced allergic contact dermatitis in rats, and the most likely mechanism of this action involves regulating the pERK1/2/TLR4-NF-κB pathway activation. Topical application of MEKS (methanol extract of K. scoparia dried fruit) inhibited DNFB-induced ear thickness and weight increases, as well as epidermal acanthosis, spongiosis and immune cell infiltration. In addition, treatment with MEKS significantly decreased the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 in inflamed tissues.
The mechanism is also involved in inhibiting the skewing reaction of T helper cell type 1.
Antipruritic Mechanisms
Oleanolic acid 3-O-monodesmosides showed an antipruritic effect, while oleanolic acid 3,28-O-bisdesmosides and their common sapogenol oleanolic acid lacked the activity. Evidence indicated that the 3-O-glycoside moiety and the 28-carboxyl group in oleanolic acid glycosides were essential for exhibiting the antipruritic effect. Furthermore, the 3-O-glucuronides showed more potent activity than the corresponding 3-O-glucosides.
Results suggest that Kochiae Fructus could be used as an antipruritogenic agent and its inhibitory effect may be partially attributed to momordin Ic.
Mechanisms Relevant to Psoriasis
Momordin Ic could inhibit HaCaT cell (human keratinocyte) proliferation and enhance cell apoptosis. Momordin Ic alters Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation by affecting β-catenin nuclear distribution. The Wnt/β-catenin signaling activator LiCl partially reversed the effects of Momordin Ic on HaCaT phenotypes and the Wnt/β-catenin pathway factors.
Mechanisms in Atopic Dermatitis
In summary, one recent study demonstrates that momordin Ic alleviates inflammation by inhibiting the JAK1/STAT3 pathway and reducing TRPA1 expression, while concurrently upregulating tight junction proteins (ZO-1 and occludin) to repair the epidermal barrier.
Hypoglycemic Mechanisms
Momordin Ic has been primarily studied for its effects on the gastrointestinal tract. MIc possesses a gastroprotective action and inhibits gastric emptying in experimental animals, mainly by activating capsaicin-sensitive nerves. Additionally, MIc suppresses intestinal glucose absorption, thus producing an antihyperglycemic action, and inhibits pancreatic lipase activity.
In silico molecular docking analysis showed that certain identified compounds possessed superior binding capacities with α-glucosidase (AutoDock score: −4.99 and −4.63 kcal/mol for the best candidates). As a result, these compounds could have therapeutic potentials for type 2 diabetes mellitus, due to their potent hypoglycemic activities.
Anticancer / Anti-Angiogenic Mechanisms
K. scoparia seed extract (KSE) can act as a potent angiogenesis inhibitor and anticancer agent. KSE inhibited multiple steps of VEGF-mediated angiogenesis in HUVECs, including cell proliferation, migration, invasion and tube formation. Previous studies demonstrated pharmacological activities of momordin Ic such as anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic and hepatoprotective effects. The antitumour activities of MIc have been reported in several types of cancers, such as hepatocellular carcinoma and colon cancer. MIc also exhibits potent apoptosis-inducing effects in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) cells.
Hepatoprotective Mechanisms
In a model of acute liver damage, momordin Ic has demonstrated a hepatoprotective effect through activation of the liver antioxidant defense system. Studies on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats found that momordin Ic and oleanolic acid from Kochiae Fructus reduce carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.
5. Scientific Evidence by Health Area
5.1 Skin Diseases (Dermatitis, Eczema, Pruritus, Urticaria, Psoriasis)
This is the best-supported area of pharmacological research on Kochiae Fructus, with multiple preclinical studies demonstrating anti-inflammatory, antipruritic, and antiallergic effects. Multiple pharmacological research studies have further confirmed that Kochiae Fructus has antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antipruritic effects, supporting its application in dermatological therapies.
Contact Dermatitis (Animal Model): One study investigated the effects of methanol extracts of K. scoparia dried fruit (MEKS) on ear swelling, histopathological changes (such as epidermal acanthosis, spongiosis and immune cell infiltration) and cytokine production in 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB)-induced contact dermatitis mice. Topical application of MEKS inhibited DNFB-induced ear thickness and weight increases, as well as DNFB-induced epidermal acanthosis, spongiosis and immune cell infiltration. In addition, treatment with MEKS significantly decreased the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 in inflamed tissues.
Pruritus (Animal Model): Antipruritic effects of various oleanolic acid glycosides from Kochiae Fructus were examined using a compound 48/80-induced pruritic model in mice. The study identified specific structural requirements for antipruritic activity among the saponin fractions.
Atopic Dermatitis (Cell and Animal): A 2026 study published in ScienceDirect investigated the role of momordin Ic in atopic dermatitis models, demonstrating momordin Ic upregulates ZO-1 and occludin expression by regulating TRPA1, indicating a mechanism relevant to epidermal barrier restoration.
Psoriasis (Cell Study): Fructus Kochiae and its principal saponin, momordin Ic, have been reported to protect against inflammation; momordin Ic could inhibit HaCaT cell proliferation and enhance cell apoptosis. This was an in vitro study using human keratinocyte cell lines (HaCaT) and is therefore preliminary in nature.
Network Pharmacology (Atopic Dermatitis): Researchers identified 19 key phytochemicals from Kochiae Fructus and 268 potential targets using the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and SwissTarget Prediction. Using GeneCards, 1786 AD-related genes were retrieved, resulting in 116 intersecting gene targets. Protein-protein interaction analyses highlighted 78 anti-AD key targets, including SRC, MAPK3, MAPK1, JUN, PIK3CA, ESR1, PTGS2, PTPN11, IL-6, and ALOX5, among the top ten anti-AD core targets. This evidence is computational and preliminary and does not reflect clinical trial data.
Evidence Strength: All dermatological evidence comes from in vitro cell studies, animal models, and network pharmacology analyses. No controlled human clinical trials for skin conditions using Kochiae Fructus as the primary intervention have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature at this time. Evidence is considered preliminary.
5.2 Urinary Tract Conditions
Kochiae Fructus has been traditionally used for treatment of diseases in the skin, eyes, and urinary tract for thousands of years in China. The plant's diuretic and heat-clearing properties have made it a standard ingredient in TCM formulas for stranguria (painful or difficult urination) and urinary tract infections. Historically, Bassia scoparia has been valued for its cooling and diuretic properties, making it a popular remedy for conditions related to the urinary tract and skin. Practitioners have used it to address issues such as dysuria (painful urination), urinary tract infections, and edema.
Evidence Strength: Support for urinary tract indications rests entirely on traditional use and classical TCM texts. No modern controlled clinical trials assessing Kochiae Fructus for urinary tract conditions have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature. Evidence is traditional use only.
5.3 Diabetes and Blood Glucose Regulation
The anticancer, hypoglycemic, and hepatoprotective effects of KF were tested in preclinical and in vitro settings. Momordin Ic inhibits gastric emptying in experimental animals, mainly by activating capsaicin-sensitive nerves. Additionally, MIc suppresses intestinal glucose absorption, thus producing an antihyperglycemic action, and inhibits pancreatic lipase activity.
The screening results of the glucose uptake experiment indicated that one compound had a potent effect on glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes at 20 μM, and other compounds exhibited significant inhibitory activities against α-glucosidase, and could have therapeutic potentials for type 2 diabetes mellitus. These results are from in vitro cell culture assays.
Evidence Strength: All evidence is from in vitro and animal studies. No human clinical trials on glycemic outcomes have been identified. Evidence is preliminary (in vitro/animal only).
5.4 Allergic Conditions
Recent studies have showed its anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antiallergic, and antipruritogenic effects to clarify the mechanisms of these actions. The results of one study indicate that Kochiae Fructus not only inhibits humoral immunity but also influences cellular immunity, and should be recognized as a material for anti-allergic reactions.
The anti-allergic effect has been attributed in part to the 70% ethanol extract and its component momordin Ic, which were studied in animal passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) models.
Evidence Strength: Animal and in vitro studies only. No human trials identified. Evidence is preliminary.
5.5 Anticancer Activity
The natural product Kochiae Fructus (KF) is renowned for its anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-fungal, and anti-pruritic effects. One study examined the anticancer effect of components of KF to assess its potential as an adjuvant for cancer treatment. Network-based pharmacological and docking analyses of KF found associations with oral squamous cell carcinoma. The molecular docking of oleanolic acid (OA) with LC3 and SQSTM1 had high binding scores, and hydrogen binding with amino acids of the receptors suggests that OA is involved in autophagy rather than the apoptosis pathway. For experimental validation, SCC-15 squamous carcinoma cells derived from a human tongue lesion were exposed to KF extract (KFE), OA, and cisplatin.
The antitumour activities of momordin Ic have been reported in several types of cancers, such as hepatocellular carcinoma and colon cancer. MIc also exhibits potent apoptosis-inducing effects in CCA (cholangiocarcinoma) cells.
K. scoparia seed extract can be a potent angiogenesis inhibitor and anticancer agent in preclinical models. KSE inhibited multiple steps of VEGF-mediated angiogenesis in HUVECs, including cell proliferation, migration, invasion and tube formation.
Evidence Strength: All anticancer evidence derives from in vitro cell studies, molecular docking analysis, and animal models. No human clinical trials on cancer outcomes exist. Evidence is experimental/preliminary only and cannot be extrapolated to clinical efficacy in humans.
5.6 Hepatoprotective Effects
Kochia scoparia has been mentioned as a treatment for liver disorders and used in traditional medicine for the alleviation of jaundice and edema. Preclinically, in a model of acute liver damage, momordin Ic has demonstrated a hepatoprotective effect through activation of the liver antioxidant defense system. Studies on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in rats documented that momordin Ic and oleanolic acid from Kochiae Fructus reduced hepatotoxicity markers.
Evidence Strength: Animal model data only. No human clinical trial evidence for liver disease. Evidence is preliminary.
5.7 Anti-Infective / Antifungal Activity
Pharmacological studies revealed that Kochia scoparia possessed antibacterial, antiparasitic, anti-cancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, dermatological, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, obesity preventive effects and inhibition of renin activity. Antifungal and antimycoplasmal activities have been noted in studies referenced by the Sacred Lotus Materia Medica database, citing susceptibilities of Mycoplasma hominis to herbal preparations containing Kochiae Fructus.
Evidence Strength: In vitro antimicrobial studies only. No clinical data. Evidence is preliminary.
5.8 Rheumatoid Arthritis
The dried fruit of Kochia scoparia is used medicinally in Korea as a main ingredient in traditional herbal formulas indicated for external and internal applications for skin diseases and rheumatoid arthritis. Kochia scoparia has a peripheral anti-nociceptive effect mediated by its anti-inflammatory actions, and this effect can be partially attributed to momordin Ic, a principal saponin constituent of Kochia scoparia. In a rodent study using Freund's complete adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis, MeOH extract and both EtOAc and BuOH fractions were active in the rheumatoidal rat model induced by Freund's complete adjuvant reagent (FCA).
Evidence Strength: Animal model and in vitro data support the anti-rheumatic claim. No human clinical trial evidence. Evidence is preliminary.
6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages
Internal Use
The dosage of Di Fu Zi should be controlled at 9–15 g. For internal use, 3–15 g is reported, prepared as a water decoction. It can be made into decoctions, pills, lotions, or liniments.
In one specific traditional formula for damp-heat skin conditions, Di Fu Zi 15 g is combined with other herbs including Bai Xian Pi 9 g, Chuan Bi Cian 12 g, Ku Shen 9 g, Ye Ju Hua 9 g, Sheng Di 12 g, Hong Hua 9 g, and Chi Shao 9 g, decocted in water.
External Use
External wash preparations are prepared by decocting 15–30 g in water and using the liquid to bathe the affected area. For skin conditions such as eczema or itching, 9–15 g internally combined with external wash is typical.
Preclinical Research Dosages
In the HUVEC cell angiogenesis study, HUVECs were treated with 10–20 µg/mL of KSE and 20–50 ng/mL of VEGF for 12–72 h, while prostate cancer and normal cells were incubated with 10–250 µg/mL of KSE for 24 h. In the in vitro anti-inflammatory study on RAW264.7 macrophages, 20-hydroxyecdysone performed significant inhibitory action on prostaglandin E2 generation at the dose of 12.5 μM, while momordin Ic and oleanolic acid showed the anti-inflammatory effect at the dose of 6.25 μM.
7. Safety Considerations
Toxicity Data (Fruit Extract)
The research on toxicity is insufficient, and only one article reported that the LD₅₀ was 7.15 ± 0.03 g/kg for water extract of KF after oral administration in KM mice. There are few toxicology studies on KF, which may be necessary for its better application as a medicine or a food.
At present, there is no literature report that Di Fu Zi has toxic effects at therapeutic doses. Overdose of it may cause vomiting, stomach pain, feeling chilly, fatigue, and loose stools. Overdose may cause nausea, stomach pain, chills, fatigue, and loose stools.
Allergy and Pollen Sensitization
Kochia pollen can cause hay fever allergies. Individuals sensitized to kochia pollen — particularly common in the Great Plains regions of North America where the plant has become naturalized — may experience allergic rhinitis during the plant's flowering season (July–October). Cross-reactivity with plant pollen from related chenopod/amaranth species is possible.
Livestock and Veterinary Toxicity (Contextual Safety)
The whole plant, particularly when mature or drought-stressed, contains toxic levels of several compounds. Nitrate, oxalate, sulfates, saponins, and alkaloids are found in kochia at levels that can cause poisoning in cattle and sheep. The likelihood of poisoning increases as the plant matures or when drought stressed. Deaths have occurred in cattle, sheep and horses. The shoots contain chemicals — oxalates, nitrates and alkaloids — that can poison animals.
K. scoparia (Kochia weed) has been associated with liver disease in livestock, though it has not been experimentally or chemically proven. Clinically kochia-related disease includes massive centrilobular hepatic necrosis, liver failure, and secondary photosensitization. These effects have been documented in livestock consuming large amounts of the whole plant as forage, not from the isolated medicinal fruit preparation (Kochiae Fructus) used in TCM or supplements.
K. scoparia contains oxalates, nitrates, alkaloids and saponins. The amount of oxalates varies depending on the environmental conditions, stage of growth, season, and plant part. Toxicity increases during prolonged rainfall events. Importantly, these toxic constituents are associated with the vegetative (stem/leaf) portions of the whole plant and have not been specifically characterized in concentrated Kochiae Fructus (fruit) preparations at typical medicinal doses; however, the same compound classes are present in the fruit as well.
Contraindications (Traditional)
People who are allergic to Di Fu Zi should not take it. Patients without damp-heat syndrome should not take it, according to traditional TCM contraindication frameworks.
Pharmacokinetics
The pharmacokinetic study was carried out on momordin Ic, with linear pharmacokinetic characteristics. Systematic pharmacokinetic data in humans are not available at this time; pharmacokinetic study of KF is lacking, and a range of pharmacokinetic studies on its active compounds are needed to provide comprehensive data for clinical application.
Drug and Herb Interactions
No systematically characterized drug-herb interactions for Kochiae Fructus have been identified in peer-reviewed literature at this time. The inhibition of pancreatic lipase and α-glucosidase by constituents of KF (momordin Ic and related compounds) is mechanistically relevant to potential additive or synergistic effects if combined with pharmaceutical antidiabetic agents (alpha-glucosidase inhibitors such as acarbose or lipase inhibitors such as orlistat), but no clinical evidence of such interactions has been established.
8. Summary of Evidence Base
The preponderance of published research on Kochia (Kochiae Fructus / Di Fu Zi) consists of in vitro cell-culture studies and animal model experiments. The areas of strongest preclinical evidence include anti-inflammatory, antipruritic, and antiallergic activity, particularly relevant to skin diseases and consistent with over 2,000 years of traditional application. Momordin Ic, the principal triterpene saponin and pharmacological marker compound, has been the focus of molecular mechanistic research. Recent pharmacology studies showed anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antiallergic, and antipruritogenic effects of KF, which supports the traditional clinical applications including the treatment of diseases in the skin, eye, and urinary tract in China, Korea, and Japan.
Additional areas — including hypoglycemia, hepatoprotection, and anticancer activity — have been reported only at the preclinical level and should not be interpreted as clinically validated effects. The anticancer, hypoglycemic, and hepatoprotective effects of KF were also tested, and the potential mechanisms of some effects were also elucidated. No controlled human clinical trials have been identified for any indication studied. The absence of robust human trial data represents a significant gap in the evidence base for this ingredient.
References
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