Ligustrum

Other Names

aligustreAmur privetblunt-leafed privetborder privetbroad-leaf privetbroad-leaved privetCalifornia privetChinese privetcommon privetDang-gwang-na-muDong Qing ZidongqingziEsquirolia sinensisEuropean privetFructus Ligustri Lucidigarden privetglossy privetJapanese privetjoteishiKorean privetLigustri Lucidi Fructusligustroligustro cerosoLigustrum amurenseLigustrum compactum var. latifoliumLigustrum esquiroliiLigustrum hookeriLigustrum japonicumLigustrum lucidumLigustrum lucidum W.T.AitonLigustrum magnoliifoliumLigustrum nepalense var. glabrumLigustrum obtusifoliumLigustrum ovalifoliumLigustrum quihouiLigustrum roxburghiiLigustrum sinenseLigustrum sinense var. latifoliumLigustrum vulgareLigustrum wallichiiNu Zhen ZiNüzhenziNv ZhenNvzhenziOlea chinensisOlea clavataoval-leaved privetPhillyrea paniculataPhillyrea terminalisprivetto-nezumimochitree privettroène de ChinetruenoVisiania paniculatawax-leaf privetwaxy-leaved privetwhite wax treewild privetyojungja

Synopsis

Ligustrum (Ligustrum lucidum W.T. Aiton): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Botanical and Common Names

Ligustrum is the genus name for a group of flowering plants in the olive family, Oleaceae. The primary species used medicinally is Ligustrum lucidum W.T. Aiton, known in English as glossy privet or wax-leaf privet. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), the dried ripe fruit is known as Nü Zhen Zi (女貞子), and the botanical drug is formally designated Fructus Ligustri Lucidi (FLL) in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Botanical synonyms recognized with high confidence include Esquirolia sinensis H. Lév., Ligustrum esquirolii H. Lév., Ligustrum magnoliifolium Dippel, Ligustrum roxburghii Blume, Ligustrum wallichii Vis., Olea chinensis Sweet, Phillyrea paniculata Roxb., and others listed by the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew.

Botanical Description and Natural Source

The evergreen plant Ligustrum lucidum, often called glossy privet, is native to China and is grown for both decorative and therapeutic uses all over the world. The genus contains about 50 species native to Europe, North Africa, and Asia. The shrub bears large clusters of white flowers with bluish-purple berries that are used medicinally. It is mainly produced in Hunan, Sichuan, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang provinces in China, and is harvested in winter by plucking the ripe fruits.

The Officinal Fruit: Description and Processing

The ripe fruits are known as LLF. They are plucked from the branches in the winter when ripe, lightly steamed or scalded in boiling water, and then dried; or they may be dried immediately. The fruit is 6–8.5 mm long, 3.5–5.5 mm in diameter, and ovate, ellipsoid, or reniform in shape, with a crinkled surface that is black-purple or grey-black when dried. A traditional processing method known as wine-steaming — in which the fruits are steeped and heated in yellow rice wine (huangjiu) — is also described in classical TCM literature. Wine-steamed Ligustri Lucidi Fructus (WLL) is said to alleviate the coolness and smoothness of LLF and enhance the function of nourishing the liver and kidney, so ancient and modern medicine usually uses it in clinics.

Common Forms and Preparations

Ligustrum is encountered in several forms in both traditional and contemporary supplement markets:

Dried whole fruit — the classical form, used directly or decocted in water.
Powdered fruit — ground dried berries, used in encapsulated supplements.
Water or hydroalcoholic extracts — prepared from the fruit by aqueous or ethanolic extraction, the basis of most standardized preparations and research extracts.
Supercritical CO₂ extract — an advanced extraction method used to concentrate specific active fractions such as oleanolic acid.
Multi-herb formulas — Ligustrum rarely appears alone in TCM; it is most commonly found in classical formulas such as Er Zhi Wan (Two Solstices Pill) and Zhenqi Fuzheng formula. Er Zhi Wan, also known as the "Two Solstices Pill," contains winter-harvested Ligustrum berries and Eclipta alba harvested at the summer solstice. Another famous formula is the Zhenqi Fuzheng formula (ZQFZ), composed of Ligustri Lucidi Fructus and Astragali Radix at a 1:2 weight ratio.

In the 2020 edition of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, there are more than 100 prescriptions containing L. lucidum W.T. Aiton.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Origin in Chinese Materia Medica

FLL was first recorded in Shen Nong's Classic Materia Medica (written during the period from 100 BCE to 200 CE), and labeled as a "top-tier" medicine — the ancient term "top-tier" was given to herbs without observable toxicity. The text describes it as a remedy for boosting vitality, calming the body, and promoting longevity. Over time, Chinese physicians like Li Shizhen in the Ming Dynasty detailed its uses in the Compendium of Materia Medica, highlighting its benefits for kidney health, vision, and hair vitality. The Compendium of Materia Medica records that the fruit is said to "strengthen the Yin, strengthen the waist and knees, transform white hair, and improve eyesight," according to Li Shizhen.

Traditional Uses in TCM

Since ancient times, Ligustrum has been used as a yin tonic in traditional Chinese medicine. It was often used in combination with Astragalus to treat various conditions, including tinnitus and premature aging. In classical TCM theory, the drug is categorized as a tonic for the liver and kidney organ systems. Traditionally, the leaves and fruits are obtained, dried, and used in clinical practice for several purposes, such as preventing aging and hair graying, improving vision, alleviating the soreness and weakness of the waist and knees, and strengthening human energy.

The fruit is taken internally in the treatment of complaints associated with weak kidney and liver energy, such as menopausal problems (especially premature menopause), blurred vision, cataracts, tinnitus, rheumatic pains, palpitations, backache, and insomnia.

As part of herbal combinations, Ligustrum is used for such purposes as turning gray hair black, alleviating ringing in the ear, and improving eyesight, among other traditional indications.

Use as Medicine and Food

Ligustrum lucidum is not only a unique herbal remedy for tonifying the liver and kidney in TCM, but also a significant Medicine-Food Homology (MFH) material released by the China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA); it has been applied as both food and medicine in numerous conventional medical systems throughout history. It is also consumed as herbal tea in Korea and India.

Traditional Use Outside China

In Europe, privet was often used as a hedge plant in gardens due to its dense foliage and ability to be shaped. Chinese herbal medicine known as LIGUSTRI FRUCTUS has traditionally also been used as a tonic and to treat illnesses such as insomnia, constipation, early white hair, neck lymph node tuberculosis, and dropsy. The leaves of Ligustrum lucidum have been used as antipyretics, analgesics, and anti-inflammatory agents.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

A total of 206 compounds have been isolated and identified from L. lucidum; they mainly include flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, iridoid glycosides, and triterpenoids. The following are the principal chemical classes and their most pharmacologically significant members:

Secoiridoid Glycosides

Ligustrum lucidum is enriched with secoiridoids; up to now, over sixty-three secoiridoids have been isolated and purified from the leaves and fruits of L. lucidum. Key members include:

Specnuezhenide — one of the most abundant components, and its content is used as the criterion to evaluate the quality of this crude herb; it has been proven to possess strong biological effects including regulating immunity, antiviral activity, anti-oxidation, and hepatoprotective activities.
Oleuropein, nuezhenide, neonuezhenide, isonuezhenide, and lucidumosides A and B — secoiridoid glucosides isolated from the fruits of Ligustrum lucidum.
Oleuropein — the secoiridoid glucoside oleuropein has demonstrated antiviral activity against respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza type 3 virus.

Phenylethanoid Glycosides

A total of fourteen phenylethanoid glycosides have been isolated and elucidated from the fruit and leaves of L. lucidum with unambiguous structures and significant bioactive characteristics. Key members include:

Salidroside — a characteristic chemical with broad pharmacological application prospect from L. lucidum, generally considered to be the quality control marker in wine-steamed L. lucidum, which is quantified based on the Chinese Pharmacopoeia.
Verbascoside and Echinacoside — the most frequently reported chemical components, proven to possess strong biological effects such as anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-osteoporotic, liver protection, and anti-Alzheimer's disease effects.
Phenylethanoid components including salidroside, tyrosinol, hydroxyltyrosinol, acteoside, and echinacoside have anti-inflammatory activities, anticancer activities, and blood sugar- and blood lipid-lowering effects.

Triterpenoids

Oleanolic acid and ursolic acid are the main effective constituents in this medicinal herb and were used as the chemical markers for quality evaluation of L. lucidum preparations in the 2015 Chinese Pharmacopoeia.

Oleanolic acid — often referred to as ligustrin in older literature; oleanolic acid and ursolic acid are the major active components responsible for L. lucidum's hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, and antibacterial activities. Previous studies have shown that L. lucidum is rich in oleanolic acid (7–15 mg/g), d-mannanoligosaccharides (6–9 mg/g), and specnuezhenide (0.6–1.2 mg/g); oleanolic acid is the major effective constituent and is responsible for different modifications on the immune system.
Ursolic acid — a structural isomer of oleanolic acid, co-occurring in the fruit with similar pharmacological properties.
Lupeol, betulin, and dammarane-type triterpenes — including crategolic acid, acetyl oleanolic acid, betulin, dammarenediol-II, verbascoside, and several dammarane-type compounds identified from the fruits.

Flavonoids

Fifteen flavonoids have been isolated and identified from the fruit, leaves, and flowers of L. lucidum. These include luteolin, apigenin, and ligustroflavone, among others. As a major class of chemical components in L. lucidum, they have been demonstrated to prevent and treat many types of ailments such as pain, inflammation, hyperlipidemia, hepatotoxicity, and vision impairment.

Other Constituents

The berries contain a variety of nutrients including calcium, fructose, glucose, iron, magnesium, and potassium. Research has also suggested that LLF can reduce hypercholesterolemia.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Immunomodulation

An in vitro study using a supercritical CO₂ extract of L. lucidum (LLE) on piglet immunocytes showed that the LLE enhanced the proliferative activity of blood lymphocytes and up-regulated CD4⁺CD8⁺ and CD4⁺CD8⁻ cell populations, and regulated the expression of Th1- and Th2-related cytokines — elevating IL-2, IFN-γ, and TNF-α while decreasing IL-4 and IL-10.

Hepatoprotection

Hepatoprotective effects are attributed to oleanolic acid and are perhaps mediated by an increase in hepatic glutathione regeneration capacity.

Anti-inflammatory Pathways

A newly isolated secoiridoid from L. lucidum fruits — secoligulene — displayed potent inhibitory effects on NO production with an IC₅₀ value of 12.0 μg/mL; it downregulated mRNA transcriptional levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and COX-2 in LPS-stimulated macrophages, and inhibited the phosphorylation of IκB and JNK activated by LPS.

Antitumor Mechanisms

In vitro studies suggest antitumor effects occur via immunomodulation and by reverting macrophage suppression brought about by tumors, or are due to increases in phagocytes and lymphokine-activated killer cells. Ligustrum lucidum fruit extract (LLFE) inhibited the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma Bel-7402 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner; LLFE induced apoptosis accompanied by activation of caspase-3, -8, and -9, which was completely abrogated by a pan-caspase inhibitor (Z-VAD-FMK). LLFE treatment also caused G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest with upregulation of p21 and downregulation of RB phosphorylation.

Anti-osteoporotic Mechanisms

Data from animal and cell experiments demonstrate that FLL is able to improve bone metabolism and bone quality in ovariectomized, growing, aged, and diabetic rats through the regulation of PTH/FGF-23/1,25-(OH)₂D₃/CaSR, Nox4/ROS/NF-κB, and OPG/RANKL/cathepsin K signaling pathways. Active metabolites of Ligustrum lucidum also activate Wnt/β-catenin signaling to drive bone marrow stromal cell (BMSC) osteogenic differentiation.

Vision-Related Mechanisms

The compound specnuezhenide may confer vision-improvement effects via inhibition of the HIF-1α/VEGF signaling pathway.

Antidiabetic Mechanisms

A published study investigated whether oleanolic acid (OA) is the principal active compound responsible for L. lucidum's antidiabetic properties, examining its effect on the expression of thyroid hormones and insulin secretion to reveal the mechanism by which L. lucidum modulates insulin levels in diabetes. (This work was conducted in animal models; see Scientific Evidence section below.)

Antiviral Mechanisms

The secoiridoid glucoside oleuropein has demonstrated antiviral activity against respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza type 3 virus, while other secoiridoid compounds showed activity against influenza A virus.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

Note: The current body of evidence for Ligustrum is overwhelmingly preclinical (in vitro and animal). Where human clinical data exist, they are limited in scale and typically involve Ligustrum as part of a multi-herb formula. Each area below explicitly characterizes the level of evidence.

5.1 Immune System Modulation

In vitro studies suggest that the fruits of Ligustrum lucidum have immunomodulatory effects. Preliminary studies, mostly conducted in China, suggest that Ligustrum stimulates the immune system, decreases inflammation, and protects the liver. In a laboratory study, an oleanolic acid-enriched supercritical CO₂ extract showed lymphocyte-proliferating and cytokine-regulating effects in piglet immune cells; these results indicated that the extract might have potential immunomodulatory effects on the immune system, providing experimental foundations for the development of an immune adjuvant. However, immunostimulation data from lab studies suggest L. lucidum may alter immune response, but data in humans are quite limited.

Evidence strength: Preliminary; predominantly in vitro and animal. Human clinical evidence is lacking.

5.2 Cancer — Adjunct to Chemotherapy

In vitro studies suggest L. lucidum has anticancer properties, but clinical evidence is lacking. Glossy Privet fruit is widely used by cancer patients in China as an adjuvant because of its immunomodulatory, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties as demonstrated in in vivo and in vitro studies.

The most notable human clinical study identified in the literature is a randomized placebo-controlled trial of a combination product: in a small study of non-small cell lung cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy, a formula containing reishi mushroom and Ligustrum was found to help maintain quality of life. Additional studies to confirm efficacy and safety are needed. It should be noted that this study tested a two-herb combination formula (Reishi & Privet Formula, RPF), not Ligustrum in isolation, making it impossible to attribute any observed effects solely to Ligustrum.

In an animal study, Ligustrum combined with Siberian ginseng may have protective effects against chemotherapy-induced myelosuppression. Contrasting this, a controlled rat study found that studying the effect of a dried extract of Astragalus membranaceus and Ligustrum lucidum on cytotoxic-induced myelosuppression in Wistar rats given cyclophosphamide intravenously at 75 mg/kg showed there was no difference between the treatment and the control group in terms of nadir count, time to nadir, and time to recovery for both the absolute neutrophil count and platelet counts.

Evidence strength: Weak. In vitro anticancer data are present but clinical evidence is minimal, limited to small studies of combination formulas, and inconclusive.

5.3 Hepatoprotection (Liver Protection)

Several pharmacological studies have shown that LLF has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, hepatoprotective, and immune-regulative effects. The hepatoprotective mechanism has been best characterized in animal studies: the hepatoprotective action of an oleanolic acid-enriched extract of Ligustrum lucidum fruits is mediated through an enhancement of hepatic glutathione regeneration capacity in mice (Yim et al., Phytother. Res. 2001;15:589–592). The classical TCM formula Er Zhi Wan (EZP), which contains Ligustrum, is most frequently mentioned as an anti-aging, hepatoprotective, hematopoiesis-promoting, and anti-oxidant agent for menopausal symptoms in clinical application in Taiwan and China. However, this is a combination formula; no controlled human clinical trials of Ligustrum alone for liver protection were identified in the available literature.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (animal and cell studies). Human evidence for isolated Ligustrum is absent; formula-level evidence is limited to observational and traditional clinical use reports.

5.4 Osteoporosis and Bone Health

FLL is assumed to exhibit anti-osteoporotic effects by improving liver and kidney deficiencies and reducing lower back soreness in TCM. Oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, salidroside, and nuzhenide have been reported to exhibit the anti-osteoporosis effect. As one of the liver and kidney tonics, L. lucidum is especially applied to prevent and treat postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMOP). A published animal model study showed that in a murine model of diabetes-induced osteoporosis, ligustroflavone from Ligustrum fruit appeared to have protective effects via regulation of parathyroid hormone levels and improved calcium balance by acting on calcium-sensing receptors.

Acute and subacute toxicity studies show that FLL is well tolerated and presents no safety concerns. A 2018 PMC review specifically examining L. lucidum and osteoporosis concluded that data from animal and cell experiments were promising, but human clinical randomized controlled trials to validate efficacy remain lacking.

Evidence strength: Moderate at the preclinical (animal/in vitro) level; the signaling pathways are well-characterized. Human clinical evidence is absent for isolated Ligustrum.

5.5 Blood Glucose and Diabetes

Ligustrum lucidum has been used in TCM for over 1000 years because of its antidiabetic and hepatoprotective properties. Research investigated whether oleanolic acid (OA) is the principal active compound responsible for its antidiabetic properties, and examined its effect on thyroid hormone expression and insulin secretion to reveal how L. lucidum modulates insulin levels in diabetes. Additional animal research found antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of oleanolic acid from L. lucidum in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. In vitro studies further suggest that the fruits of Ligustrum lucidum have antidiabetic effects.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only (animal models and in vitro). No human clinical trials of Ligustrum for blood glucose control were identified.

5.6 Vision

Ligustrum is used in Chinese medicine to treat poor eyesight, but clinical evidence is lacking. In animal models, Ligustrum compounds showed vision-sparing effects. The specific compound implicated is specnuezhenide, which acts through suppression of the HIF-1α/VEGF pathway — a mechanism relevant to pathological retinal angiogenesis. All such data are from animal or cell-based work.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only. Traditional use is well-documented; clinical evidence in humans is absent.

5.7 Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects

Secoiridoid glucosides showed antioxidant effects against free radical-associated hemolysis of erythrocytes. Multiple compounds — including the phenylethanoid glycosides verbascoside and echinacoside, the secoiridoids, and the triterpenoids — have demonstrated anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities in cell and animal models. Accumulating evidence has indicated that oleanolic acid and ursolic acid have exerted anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidative, antitumor, antimutagenic, and anti-osteoporosis properties in in-vivo and in-vitro experimental studies.

Evidence strength: Solid at the in vitro level; confirmatory animal data available; no human RCT data identified.

5.8 Skin and Dermatological Applications

Ligustrum lucidum Aiton is a flowering plant whose fruits have been traditionally used for skin nourishment and the treatment of skin diseases. Preclinical research has isolated compounds from L. lucidum fruits with anti-inflammatory properties relevant to skin conditions such as psoriasis, acting via suppression of NF-κB and JNK signaling. All available evidence is in vitro or animal-model level.

Evidence strength: Preliminary, in vitro only.

5.9 Other Areas Mentioned in Traditional Literature

Traditional use claims exist for dizziness, tinnitus, palpitations, insomnia, and menopausal symptoms. For improvement of eyesight and treatment of dizziness, L. lucidum is used in Chinese medicine but clinical evidence is lacking. Fever and insomnia uses are not backed by scientific evidence or have no data to support them, respectively.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

The key compounds of L. lucidum exert effects relevant to the following body systems: anti-osteoporosis (musculoskeletal), anti-tumor (oncology/immune), liver protective (hepatic), antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory. In TCM theoretical terms, the herb is classified as a tonic for the liver and kidney organ systems. The classical formula EZP (Er Zhi Wan/Pill) containing Ligustrum has shown marked effects in the treatment of diabetic cardiomyopathy, benign prostatic hyperplasia, liver injury, Alzheimer's disease, osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, fatty liver, and aging-associated symptoms — though these are multi-herb combination outcomes.

Body systems associated with Ligustrum, based on the available research literature, include:

Hepatic (Liver): Hepatoprotection via glutathione regeneration; anti-hepatocellular carcinoma effects in vitro.
Immune system: Lymphocyte proliferation, T-cell subset modulation, cytokine regulation.
Musculoskeletal (Bone): Anti-osteoporotic activity through PTH regulation, OPG/RANKL signaling, and osteogenic differentiation pathways.
Metabolic (Blood glucose/lipids): Antidiabetic and lipid-lowering activity in animal models.
Ocular: Vision-sparing effects via VEGF pathway inhibition in animal models.
Integumentary (Skin): Anti-inflammatory activity against inflammatory skin disease models in vitro.
Vascular/Antiviral: Antiviral activity against several respiratory viruses in cell assays.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The following dosages are those reported in the literature; they are not recommendations and context varies significantly between studies and traditions.

Dried fruit (traditional decoction/powder): The treatment dosage of the dried fruits is typically 6 to 20 g per day. A clinical reference source (Acupuncture Today) reported a figure of 5–15 grams per day for powdered berries.
Dried leaves (traditional): The dosage of dried leaves is typically 40 to 75 g per day.
Animal model (Astragalus/Ligustrum combination): Rats were fed 240 mg of crude extract of Astragalus membranaceus and Ligustrum lucidum from day 1 to day 12 of study.
Chinese Pharmacopoeia: The quality of the crude herb is evaluated partly by the content of its chemical markers — oleanolic acid, ursolic acid (per the 2015 Pharmacopoeia), and specnuezhenide — as determined by standardized HPLC methods. Specific minimum content standards are set in the Pharmacopoeia, though exact figures vary by edition.
Salidroside pharmacokinetics: The pharmacokinetics data reveals that salidroside is one of the active constituents, and that tyrosol is hard to detect under physiological conditions. Wide tissue distribution is shown by pharmacokinetic investigations, with the liver serving as the main site of accumulation.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

General Toxicological Profile

Acute and subacute toxicity studies show that FLL is well tolerated and presents no safety concerns. Its earliest classification in the Shen Nong's Classic Materia Medica as a "top-tier" medicine was a designation given to herbs "without observable toxicity."

However, the overall depth of modern toxicological characterization is limited. Although L. lucidum has been used as a critical tonic in different traditional medical systems worldwide for centuries, data on the systematic safety evaluation of this herb is still insufficient, and toxicological experiments are seldom reported. As a traditional medicine and food plant, toxicological studies and the detailed bioavailability, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of its main compositions in the body are still insufficient, thereby limiting its wider applications.

Pharmacokinetic Concerns

Active metabolites of Ligustrum lucidum face pharmacokinetic limitations including narrow metabolite coverage, low bioavailability, and non-targeted tissue accumulation that may induce hepatorenal toxicity. These concerns are identified primarily in the context of high-dose or long-term exposure and have been characterized in animal models rather than controlled human trials.

Drug Interactions

Most modern pharmacological and toxicological research has been generally performed on single L. lucidum or its main compositions, which critically ignored the effects induced by medicine interaction. No specific evidence-based drug interaction profiles for L. lucidum in humans were identified in the available literature. The immunomodulatory activity of the herb raises theoretical considerations for interactions with immunosuppressant drugs, but these have not been formally characterized in clinical studies.

Hypersensitivity

Ligustrum lucidum is contraindicated in people with known hypersensitivity to the plant.

Pregnancy and Lactation

The available evidence does not provide sufficient data to evaluate safety during pregnancy or lactation. The herb is traditionally advised against in certain states; formal human safety data are absent.

Evidence Gaps and Research Limitations

Modern pharmacological research has been concentrated on anti-osteoporotic and hepatoprotective activity, with relatively weak applications in antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity. The molecular mechanisms of action, signaling pathways, and targets remain largely unknown, and the active ingredients responsible for some activities of L. lucidum are far from clear, strongly impeding the clinical application of this herb.

Robust randomized controlled trials remain imperative to validate efficacy and safety profiles.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Ligustrum may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Ligustrum may help support.

No body systems available.