Lupin

Other Names

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Synopsis

Lupin (Lupinus spp.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Botanical and Common Names

Lupin (also spelled "lupine") belongs to the genus Lupinus, within the family Fabaceae (legumes). The genus comprises more than 300 species distributed worldwide. The legume lupin (genus Lupinus) belongs to the Fabaceae family and includes more than 300 species distributed worldwide. For human consumption and nutritional research, a small number of domesticated and semi-domesticated species are most relevant: most research has focused on domesticated and semi-domesticated species, such as Lupinus angustifolius, Lupinus albus, Lupinus luteus, and Lupinus mutabilis.

Lupinus albus L. — White lupin; native to the eastern Mediterranean and widely cultivated in southern Europe, North Africa, and South America.
Lupinus angustifolius L. — Blue or narrow-leaved lupin; the dominant commercial variety in Australia and much of northern Europe.
Lupinus luteus L. — Yellow lupin; primarily grown in central and eastern Europe.
Lupinus mutabilis Sweet — Andean lupin, pearl lupin, or tarwi; cultivated in South America since pre-Columbian times.

Some varieties are referred to as "sweet lupins" because they contain much smaller amounts of toxic alkaloids than the "bitter lupin" varieties. Among the species of the genus Lupinus, the white lupin, Lupinus albus L., has notable potential.

Morphology

The leaf blades are usually palmately divided into five to 28 leaflets. The flowers are produced in dense or open whorls on an erect spike, each flower 1–2 centimetres long. The pea-like flowers have an upper standard, or banner, two lateral wings, and two lower petals fused into a keel. The fruit is a pod containing several seeds.

Common Forms and Preparations

Seeds are used among others for the production of gluten-free flour, bacterial and fungal fermented products, noodle and pasta products, as substitutes of meat, egg protein and sausages, and are also cooked, roasted and ground and mixed with cereal flour in the production of bread, crisps and pasta, and dietary dishes. As a dietary supplement or functional food ingredient, lupin is commercially available in the following forms:

Whole seeds / beans: Traditionally sold pickled in brine (lupin beans) as a snack food.
Lupin flour: Ground from dehulled seeds; used extensively in bakery products as a partial wheat flour substitute.
Lupin protein isolate (LPI): A concentrated protein fraction used in nutritional supplements, protein drinks, and functional foods.
Lupin kernel fibre (LKF): A major by-product of the manufacture of lupin protein isolates, which can be dried to produce a purified fibre food ingredient. Such an ingredient possesses a neutral odour and flavour, a smooth texture, and high water-binding and oil-binding properties.
Fermented lupin products: Including lupin-based tempeh and bean pastes.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Use

The most ancient evidence of lupin is from ancient Egypt, dating back to the 22nd century BC. It is more likely that white lupin was initially domesticated in Ancient Greece, where its greatest diversity is concentrated and its wild subspecies (ssp. graecus) has survived until the present. From Greece, and subsequently from Egypt and Ancient Rome, lupin was spread over all Mediterranean regions. In literature there are accounts of the well-developed culture of lupin in the ancient and medieval Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Algeria, Tunisia, Sudan, Israel and Turkey.

Arab conquests spread lupin across northern Africa and into the Iberian peninsula. Frederick the Great was responsible for introducing lupin from Italy to northern Prussia.

Romans, as well as Greeks, were fully aware of the medical and pharmaceutical value of lupin. Seeds, plants and decoction left after seed soaking were used as drugs. Pliny mentioned sixteen ways of applying lupin in medicine.

Medical and Cosmetic Uses in Classical Antiquity and the Medieval Period

Lupin was used as one of the many traditional remedies of the civilizations of Jordan and Greece for the treatment of diabetes. Furthermore, its use was also reported for conditions such as abscesses, parasites, heart disease and rheumatism. For medical purposes, not only seeds were used, but also the water left after their wetting.

The medieval Persian physician Avicenna documented topical uses of lupin: lupin was said to "remove freckles, pityriasis, marks, blood spots, pimples and clear the face," was used in skin preparations, applied to ulcers, gangrenes, scabs, vitiligo and leukoderma, and used externally in baths and washes to relieve itching and scabies. Lupin was commonly used instead of linseed or barley meal to make poultices and was considered a good application to inflammations.

Andean (Pre-Incan and Incan) Traditions

The Andean American variety, Lupinus mutabilis, was domesticated by pre-Incan inhabitants of present-day Peru. Rock imprints of seeds and leaves, dated around the 6th and 7th century BC, are exhibited in the National Museum of Lima. It was a food widespread during the Incan Empire. In their exploration of the New World, Spaniards noted that the Andean civilizations had lupins (Tarwi, or Lupinus mutabilis) "as we have in Spain." Spanish domination led to a change in the eating habits of the indigenous peoples, and only recently (late 20th century onward) has interest in using lupins as a food been renewed.

Traditional Preparation and Debittering

In most of these cultures, lupin was traditionally used either for grazing, or the bitter seed was soaked before use by man or animal. They are traditionally eaten as a pickled snack food, primarily in the Mediterranean basin (L. albus), Latin America (L. mutabilis) and North Africa (L. angustifolius). In Egypt, lupin is known by its Egyptian Arabic name "termis" (ترمس), and it is sold by street vendors as well as local markets as a snack, especially during the Sham el-Nessim festival. Even today, in many countries of the world, steeped or boiled seeds of lupin are sold at the markets and offered in bars as a delicacy (similarly to sunflower seed).

In most of these cultures, lupin was traditionally used either for grazing, or the bitter seed was soaked before use by man or animal. Shortly after WWI, the German Botanical Society held a "lupin dinner" to generate interest in the crop, featuring lupin steaks, liquor, coffee, tablecloths, napkins, and other items made from the crop.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Proteins and Conglutin Fractions

Lupin seeds are protein-rich, with protein content comparable to soybeans. The protein content in lupine seeds is similar to that in soy, with an acceptable content of essential amino acids. The protein is organized into four distinct storage fractions called conglutins. Approximately 80% of the protein is comprised of α-conglutin (11S legumin-like globulins) and β-conglutin (7S vicilin-like globulins). Gamma-conglutin, which mainly remains in the acid soluble fraction during the isoelectric precipitation process, is of interest for nutraceutical applications.

α-Conglutin (11S globulin / legumin-like): The dominant storage protein. Irrespective of processing, α-conglutin has a molecular size of approximately 412 kDa.
β-Conglutin (7S globulin / vicilin-like): The second most abundant fraction; β-conglutin has a molecular size of approximately 210 kDa.
γ-Conglutin: A minor but bioactively significant fraction. Lupinus albus γ-conglutin in vitro models have demonstrated biological activity that potentiates insulin and metformin activity on cellular glucose consumption, thereby presenting a potential use for γ-conglutin in glycemic control.
δ-Conglutin: A minor 2S albumin-type fraction. In general, α-conglutin (11S, legumin) and β-conglutin (7S, vicilin) are the most abundant ones, with γ-conglutin (7S, tetramer) and δ-conglutin (2S, albumin) minorly present.

The most abundant essential amino acids in lupin protein are leucine and lysine, while the limiting amino acid is methionine.

Dietary Fibre

The kernels (dehulled seeds) of lupins contain far higher dietary fibre levels than other legumes. This fibre is a complex mixture of non-starch polysaccharides making up the thickened cell walls of the kernel. The fibre has properties of both insoluble and soluble fibres.

Lipids

Unique traits of protein, fatty acids with a desirable ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 acids, and fibre as well as other specific components, for example oligosaccharides and antioxidants or non-starch carbohydrates, make white lupin an excellent component in many healthy diets. Lupin seeds contain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), with oleic and linoleic acids predominating.

Minerals

Lupins are especially rich in potassium, iron, zinc, and copper, with a low content of phosphorus and hence phytic acid, which could negatively affect minerals and protein absorption.

Polyphenols, Antioxidants, and Isoflavones

Lupin seeds contain significant amounts of polyphenols, carotenoids, phytosterols, tocopherols, alkaloids and peptides with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory activities. Among polyphenols, genistein and its derivatives (isoflavones) are of great importance because of their phytoestrogenic potential.

Quinolizidine Alkaloids (QAs)

QAs are a broad group of secondary metabolites present in all species of the genus Lupinus and related genera from the Genisteae tribe. Biosynthetically, QAs are derived from lysine that is converted to cadaverine, which is the central intermediate from which all QAs are formed. QAs have quinolizidine as a core structure that consists of two fused 6-membered rings with a nitrogen atom at the bridgehead. In total, about 170 known quinolizidine alkaloids exist. The major individual QAs include lupanine, sparteine, angustifoline, 13-hydroxylupanine, and multiflorine. Sparteine is used in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias and induces uterine contractions. In addition, it has been shown to have depressant effects on the central nervous system and hypotensive, diuretic, and anti-inflammatory activities. Lupanine, 13-hydroxylupanine, and multiflorine have pharmacological activities as anticonvulsant, antipyretic, and hypoglycemic agents.

4. Proposed Mechanisms of Action

Lipid Metabolism and Cholesterol Regulation

Protein isolates of L. albus have been reported to have a hypolipidemic, anti-atherosclerotic, and hypocholesterolaemic effect in rabbits, rats, and chickens, and were shown to increase LDL receptor activity in HepG2 cells. The high arginine content of lupin protein has been proposed as one mechanism; arginine can influence nitric oxide synthesis and vascular tone. Arginine might be responsible for some, but not all of the beneficial effects of lupin protein on lipid profiles.

Glycemic Control

Studies have demonstrated the internalization and phosphorylation of γ-conglutin, the insulin-binding and insulin-mimetic action of the glycoprotein in vitro. Administration of γ-conglutin for 21 days to hyperglycaemic rats attenuated the rise in plasma glucose and serum insulin concentrations significantly when compared to glucose-fed rats. Collectively, these studies suggest the involvement of γ-conglutin in the hypoglycemic effect of lupin. Additionally, alkaloids, namely lupanine, can potentiate the release of insulin by glucose, making it a potential tool in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Gut Health and Prebiotic Activity

Lupin kernel fibre can be described as a "prebiotic fibre" since it improves gut micro-floral balance and the chemical environment within the colon. There is good evidence from several independent studies that lupin kernel fibre consumption can beneficially affect microbiological (i.e., the balance of "good" probiotics and "bad" potential pathogens) and chemical markers of good bowel health and function, and thus be classified as a "prebiotic" food ingredient.

Satiety and Body Weight

The high protein and fibre content of lupin is thought to contribute to satiety signalling. Whole lupin demonstrated more consistent beneficial effects for satiety, glycaemic control and blood pressure than lupin protein or lupin fibre alone.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Lipid-Lowering and Cardiovascular Effects

Different potential health benefits of lupin have been investigated, particularly in the area of dyslipidaemia, hyperglycaemia, and hypertension prevention.

A key randomized, controlled, double-blind crossover trial by Bähr and colleagues investigated the effect of 25 g/day lupin protein isolate (LPI) on selected cardiovascular markers and serum amino acids in 33 hypercholesterolaemic subjects. LPI and the active comparator milk protein isolate (MPI) were incorporated in protein drinks and consumed over 8 weeks separated by a 4-week washout period.

A larger randomized, controlled, double-blind three-phase crossover study by Bähr et al. (2014) enrolled 72 hypercholesterolaemic subjects, assigned to three diets with 25 g/day lupin protein (LP), milk protein (MP), or milk protein plus 1.6 g/day arginine (MPA) each for 28 days in random order interrupted by 6-week washout periods. Lupin protein and the comparator milk protein were incorporated into complex food products (bread, roll, sausage, and vegetarian spread). The study showed for the first time that incorporation of 25 g/day of lupin protein into a variety of complex food products lowers total and LDL cholesterol, triacylglycerols, homocysteine, and uric acid in hypercholesterolaemic subjects. The hypocholesterolaemic effect is stronger in subjects with severe hypercholesterolaemia.

A separate randomized controlled trial on moderately dyslipidaemic patients using a lupin protein concentrate found that at the end of intervention, reductions of LDL-cholesterol (−8.0%), non-HDL-cholesterol (−7.5%), and PCSK9 (−12.7%) levels were statistically significant only after the lupin diet. However, the differences between the two groups were not statistically significant.

A 2022 systematic review (PMC8777979) that included 21 studies with 998 participants found that protein and dietary fibre components of lupin individually demonstrated consistent evidence for lipid-lowering effects. These benefits were observed in hypercholesterolaemic participants, as well as in one of two studies that recruited healthy participants with average baseline total cholesterol above 5 mmol/L. Given that lipid levels did not change significantly in the lupin component study based on healthy men and women with average baseline total cholesterol below 5 mmol/L, this suggests lupin protein and fibre had moderating effects above this level.

Strength of evidence: Moderate. Multiple small-to-medium RCTs and a systematic review support cholesterol-lowering effects, particularly in hypercholesterolaemic individuals. Study heterogeneity, small sample sizes, and the reliance on surrogate markers (rather than hard cardiovascular endpoints) limit the conclusions that can be drawn.

5.2 Blood Pressure

A controlled intervention study by Lee et al. (2009) investigated the effect of lupin kernel flour–enriched bread on blood pressure (published in Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2009, 89, 766–772). A systematic review noted potential relationships between lupins in their whole form and decreased blood pressure. Evidence for blood pressure reduction from lupin component interventions does not conclusively favour its protein or fibre alone due to the paucity of studies.

Strength of evidence: Preliminary. The available blood pressure data from lupin-specific trials are limited in number and sample size; effects appear more consistent for whole lupin than for isolated fractions.

5.3 Glycaemic Control and Type 2 Diabetes

Researchers hypothesised that lupin and soya beverages would lower the acute glycaemic response compared with a control beverage containing no protein or fibre. In a randomised, controlled, cross-over trial, 24 diabetic adults attended three testing sessions. At each session, participants consumed a beverage containing 50 g glucose (control), 50 g glucose plus lupin kernel flour with 12.5 g fibre and 22 g protein (lupin), or 50 g glucose plus 12.5 g fibre and 22 g protein from soya isolates (soya). Although glucose and C-peptide responses did not differ significantly between lupin and soya, lupin resulted in a lower insulin response compared to soya.

A crossover trial investigating the short-term effects of lupin versus whey supplementation found that the study compared the acute glycaemic effects of whey and lupin in healthy volunteers following a carbohydrate-rich reference meal. In a crossover design, three standardized meals (reference meal; reference meal + whey; reference meal + lupin) were provided to 12 healthy male and female volunteers, aged between 23 and 33. Volunteers' blood glucose and insulin concentrations were analyzed at baseline and at seven time points. The supplementation of whey or lupin significantly blunted the postprandial increase in blood glucose concentrations compared to the reference meal (p < 0.001).

Regarding the γ-conglutin protein fraction specifically, Garzón-de la Mora et al. stated that L. albus gamma-conglutin lowered glucose in healthy subjects and patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Animal model data are supportive: lupin protein isolate (LPI) improved insulin sensitivity and reduced glucose and triglyceride levels by one-third in insulin-resistant rats. However, these are pre-clinical data and do not directly translate to clinical recommendations.

Strength of evidence: Preliminary to moderate for acute postprandial glycaemia reduction. Trials in T2DM patients are small and short-term; long-term glycaemic outcomes in established T2DM require further investigation.

5.4 Body Weight and Satiety

The lupin kernel fibre (LKF) has demonstrated beneficial effects in clinical studies on biomarkers for metabolic diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. The 2022 systematic review found that whole lupin demonstrated more consistent beneficial effects for satiety, glycaemic control and blood pressure than lupin protein or lupin fibre alone. Heterogeneity, low study numbers and a small participant base indicated further studies are required to strengthen current evidence, particularly regarding the protein and dietary fibre components of lupin.

Strength of evidence: Preliminary. Whole lupin appears to support satiety, but the evidence base is heterogeneous and study numbers are small.

5.5 Gut Microbiome (Prebiotic Activity)

There is evidence that lupine seed fibre can act as a prebiotic ingredient and support healthy bowel function. Several studies have provided important evidence that lupin kernel fibre can act as a prebiotic ingredient and promote the growth of desirable gut bacteria while supporting digestive system function. One study by Smith et al. reported reduced faecal levels of Clostridia bacteria (potential pathogens) and increased levels of Bifidobacterium (beneficial probiotics) in 38 overweight participants following lupin kernel fibre consumption.

Strength of evidence: Moderate for prebiotic classification based on microbiological markers; clinical significance in terms of hard health outcomes remains to be established.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

The effects of white lupin components concern the physiological condition of the human body, including diabetes, hypertension, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, lipid concentration, glycaemia, appetite, insulin resistance, and colorectal cancer.

Cardiovascular system: Lipid modulation (total cholesterol, LDL-C, triglycerides), blood pressure regulation.
Endocrine / metabolic system: Postprandial glucose attenuation, insulin sensitivity, management of type 2 diabetes risk.
Gastrointestinal system: Prebiotic fibre activity, modulation of gut microbiota composition, improved bowel function.
Adipose / energy homeostasis: Satiety signalling, body weight management.
Antioxidant / anti-inflammatory: Polyphenols, carotenoids, phytosterols, tocopherols, and peptides with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory activities have been identified in lupin seeds, though clinical evidence for these effects specifically attributable to lupin in humans is limited.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are reported directly from peer-reviewed clinical studies and should not be construed as prescriptive recommendations:

Lupin protein isolate (LPI), 25 g/day for 4–8 weeks: Investigated at 25 g/day in 33 hypercholesterolaemic subjects in a randomized, controlled, double-blind crossover study, incorporated in protein drinks and consumed over 8 weeks. The same dose was used in the three-phase crossover study (Bähr et al., 2014) in a variety of food products.
Lupin kernel flour (12.5 g fibre / 22 g protein per beverage, acute dose): In a randomised controlled crossover trial of 24 diabetic adults, each testing session involved a beverage containing 50 g glucose plus lupin kernel flour delivering 12.5 g fibre and 22 g protein.
Traditional seed powder / infusion dosages: Traditional use documented seed in powder form at 2–4 grams, up to 6 grams; seed in infusion at 3–9 grams.
Some earlier studies used relatively high doses of more than 33 g/day of lupin protein, which can hardly be consumed under physiological conditions.

Current evidence suggests that lupin kernel fibre, with its unique non-starch polysaccharide structure, may have potential health benefits in the human diet, related to satiety, blood cholesterol levels and prebiotic activity; however, further independent research studies are required before health claims for this fibre can be made.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 Quinolizidine Alkaloid Toxicity

Information on the toxicity of QAs in animals and humans is limited. Following acute exposure to sparteine (the reference compound), anticholinergic effects and changes in cardiac electric conductivity are considered to be critical for human hazard characterisation. The EFSA CONTAM Panel used a margin of exposure (MOE) approach, identifying a lowest single oral effective dose of 0.16 mg sparteine/kg body weight as the reference point to characterise the risk following acute exposure. Acute poisoning after consumption of lupin seeds with a high alkaloid content has been documented.

Sweet lupins can contain more than 100 mg/kg quinolizidine alkaloids; the content of QA in bitter lupins may be even higher. In Europe, currently no maximum levels for quinolizidine alkaloids in food are set. In Australia and New Zealand, a maximum level of 200 mg QA/kg applies for lupins. Primarily sweet lupins are used as food and feed, but technical debittering of bitter lupins is also possible. The highest risk of acute intoxication results from insufficiently debittered lupins.

The EFSA CONTAM Panel considered that the impact of uncertainties on the risk assessment of QAs in lupin seeds and lupin-derived products is substantial due to the limited data on toxicity, occurrence and consumption. The Panel recommends the generation of more data related to the toxicokinetics, toxicity and occurrence of QAs as well as to the consumption of lupin seeds and lupin-based foods in order to refine the risk assessment.

Sparteine is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract at a rate of 70% in humans after oral administration, with maximum plasma concentrations being reached after 45 minutes.

8.2 Lupin Allergy and Cross-Reactivity

EFSA states that IgE-binding proteins of lupin flour extracts have been identified and show in vitro cross-reactivities with peanut and other legumes, although the most clinically relevant cross-reactions are with peanut proteins. With its increased consumption, reports of allergic reactions to lupin are increasing, either as primary lupin allergy or because of cross-reactivity to other legume allergens, most importantly to peanut.

One controlled study in peanut-allergic patients suggests a clinically relevant cross-reactivity rate of about 30%, but higher (68%) rates have been reported. Clinical reactions range from mild local reactions to systemic anaphylaxis. Ingested doses of lupin flour reported to have triggered clinical reactions range from 265 to 1,000 mg, but the lowest dose triggering reactions has not been established.

Lupin IgE cross-reactivity has been reported for peanut, soya, lentil, chickpea and bean. The cross-reactivity of lupin-sensitised patients has been reported to be 59–72% for soya and 52–55% for pea.

Due to the severity of lupin allergy, legume cross-reactivity and its abundance in processed food, the European Union (EU Regulation No. 1169/2011) has made lupin a mandatory allergen, to be labelled on all lupin-containing food products.

Lupin allergy is suspected to be relatively uncommon in the overall population since lupin sensitisation occurred in only 2% of non-atopic subjects. However, there is a clear risk of a lupin allergy in predisposed subjects, since the frequency of lupin sensitisation was 6% in atopic subjects. In particular, subjects with existing sensitisation or allergy to other legumes are at higher risk for a sensitisation or allergy to lupin due to cross-reactivity.

8.3 Protein Isolation Reduces Alkaloid Content

Processing significantly reduces QA content in derived ingredients. Protein isolation reduced alkaloids below 200 mg/kg, especially for isolates with higher protein content. This is relevant for the use of lupin protein isolates in dietary supplements, where alkaloid exposure is markedly lower than with whole or insufficiently processed seeds.

8.4 Interactions

Sparteine, a prominent QA in lupin, is a substrate of CYP2D6 and has well-characterised cardiac electrophysiological activity. Individuals who are CYP2D6 poor metabolisers may be more susceptible to accumulation following significant alkaloid exposure. The pharmacological profile of sparteine — including its historical medical use as an antiarrhythmic and oxytocic — is relevant context when evaluating high-alkaloid lupin exposure in populations with cardiovascular conditions. These interactions apply principally to bitter lupin or insufficiently processed products, not to certified sweet lupin varieties or standard protein isolates. Additionally, the prebiotic fibre in lupin may interact with the pharmacokinetics of co-administered drugs by altering gastrointestinal transit time and gut microbiota composition, though direct lupin-drug interaction studies in humans have not been identified in the peer-reviewed literature.

8.5 Antinutritional Factors

Lupin species contain other antinutritional factors known as quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs), which are responsible for their bitter taste. QAs are toxic secondary metabolites to animals and humans that the lupin plants produce as a resistance to pathogens and herbivores. Phytic acid content in lupin is relatively low compared with other legumes, which is considered a nutritional advantage in terms of mineral bioavailability.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Lupin may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Lupin may help support.

No body systems available.