Monardella odoratissima

Monardella odoratissima (Mountain Pennyroyal / Mountain Coyote Mint)

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Names, and Natural Source

Scientific Name and Taxonomy

Monardella odoratissima Benth. (mountain coyote mint, mountain beebalm, mountain monardella, or mountain pennyroyal) is a perennial flowering plant and a member of the mint family Lamiaceae. It was first described by George Bentham in 1834. The species epithet odoratissima (Latin: "most fragrant" or "most sweet-smelling") directly references its intensely aromatic character. It has the minty odor characteristic of the Lamiaceae family.

Taxonomically, the species has been subject to ongoing revision. Studies in preparation for new editions of the Flora of North America and The Jepson Manual showed that there was "continuous variation" between M. odoratissima and M. villosa. Traditional characters used to separate the two species varied with location, elevation, and soil type. Plants traditionally placed in M. villosa occurred at lower elevations, those placed in M. odoratissima at higher elevations, but there was a wide zone in which intermediates were found, particularly at middle elevations. In 2020, Monardella villosa was included in M. odoratissima; as of April 2024, acceptance of the inclusion varies.

As of April 2024, Plants of the World Online accepts six subspecies of Monardella odoratissima. In the narrower taxonomic treatment, several recognized subspecies include ssp. odoratissima, ssp. discolor, ssp. pallida, ssp. glauca, ssp. franciscana, ssp. obispoensis, and ssp. villosa. Brunell (2020) recognizes the additional subspecies franciscana, obispoensis, and villosa within M. odoratissima.

The genus Monardella belongs to the order Lamiales, family Lamiaceae, and is related to other genera in the subfamily Nepetoideae. Monardella species are endemic to western North America.

Common Names

• Mountain pennyroyal
• Mountain coyote mint
• Mountain beebalm
• Mountain monardella
• Alpine mountainbalm (EN); Monardelle odorante (FR)

Morphology and Botanical Description

When distinguished from Monardella villosa, Monardella odoratissima is described as a subshrub growing to 10–45 cm (4 in – 1 ft 6 in). It is generally sparsely hairy, occasionally with sparse stalked cone-shaped glandular hairs. Its untoothed leaves are 15–50 mm (0.6–2.0 in) long and 5–18 mm (0.2–0.7 in) wide, and are green to ashy gray, often tinged with purple. They may be sparsely or densely hairy. The glandular hairs on the underside of the leaf occur in pits.

A grayish, aromatic plant with erect, bunched, leafy stems bearing opposite leaves and topped by small, whitish to pale purple or pink flowers in a dense head. In general, its stems form large mats about 1 ft. high. In bloom, these are covered with flower heads ranging in color from near white to bright blue-purple. The paired leaves are highly fragrant.

Scanning electron microscopy has shown that adaxial portions of the leaf contain both simple non-glandular and glandular (capitate and subsessile) trichomes from which essential oil can be extracted.

Geographic Range and Habitat

When defined broadly to include Monardella villosa, the species is found in western North America, from British Columbia in the north via Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Utah, and Washington to Arizona, California, and New Mexico in the south. Monardella odoratissima Benth. is a small, fragrant perennial flowering mint found in California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Washington state.

Its native habitat is wet or dry, rocky, forest openings from 3,500–11,000 ft elevation. Characteristic plant communities include Sagebrush Scrub, Yellow Pine Forest, Red Fir Forest, Lodgepole Forest, and Subalpine Forest. Its distribution spans Washington to California, east to Idaho and Nevada, occurring in open, dry, often rocky places, from low deserts to mid-elevations in the mountains.

In California, it is found in the Klamath Range, highlands of the North Coast Range, highlands of the Cascade Range, High Sierra Nevada, Modoc Plateau, and the White and Inyo Mountains in natural habitats of sagebrush scrub and montane forest from 2,000–11,000 ft.

Common Preparations and Dosage Forms

Traditionally and in contemporary use, M. odoratissima is prepared in several forms:

• Herbal tea (infusion/cold infusion): The fresh or dried aromatic leaves and flower heads are steeped in cold water to make a refreshing mint-like tea.
• Decoction: The plant is carminative and febrifuge. A decoction of the stems and flower heads has been used in the treatment of flatulence and other digestive upsets, colds, and fevers.
• Eye wash: A decoction of the stems and flower heads has been used in the treatment of flatulence and other digestive upsets, colds, and fevers. The decoction is also used as an eye wash for sore or inflamed eyes.
• Essential oil (steam distilled): Essential oil produced through steam distillation has been examined for its essential oil yield and aromatic profiles.
• Culinary use: Mountain pennyroyal (Monardella odoratissima), as might be suggested by its name, is an intensely aromatic, perennial mountain herb that grows throughout the Pacific West and in British Columbia.

No standardized pharmaceutical dosage forms (capsules, tablets, tinctures) have been described for this specific species in published peer-reviewed or pharmacopeial literature as of the date of this article.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Indigenous North American Use

Monardella odoratissima is a member of the mint family, whose members are notable for their essential oils, and the plant has a documented history of use by indigenous peoples of western North America. The plant was used by the indigenous peoples of California as a remedy for stomach upset, respiratory conditions, and sore throat. It may also be steeped into a bitter mint tea.

Ethnobotanical records (as cited in Moerman's Native American Ethnobotany, Timber Press, 1998) record uses among multiple western tribes, including for digestive complaints, fevers, respiratory ailments, and ophthalmic conditions. The plant is carminative and febrifuge. A decoction of the stems and flower heads has been used in the treatment of flatulence and other digestive upsets, colds, and fevers.

The broader genus Monarda—a close relative—also carries a well-documented record of medicinal use among North American tribes. Several Monarda species have been used by Native Americans as medicinal plants. For example, M. fistulosa was used by the Blackfoot, Navajo, Lakota, and Winnebago people to treat boils, cuts, and wounds; the Cherokee, Chippewa, Flathead, Ojibwa, and Tewa used the plant to treat colds, fever, and influenza; the Crow, Lakota, Menominee, and Ojibwa used the plant for coughs, catarrh, and other respiratory problems. Monarda punctata was used by the Delaware, Mohegan Nanticoke, and Navajo tribes to treat colds, fever, coughs, and catarrh. While these data refer to closely related species rather than M. odoratissima itself, they provide ethnobotanical context for the broader genus in indigenous medicine.

Traditional Preparations and Purposes

Across documented traditional contexts, the primary preparations were:

• Carminative and digestive: decoctions of stems and flower heads for flatulence and digestive upsets.
• Febrifuge: decoctions taken internally for colds and fevers.
• Ophthalmic: a decoction used as an eye wash for sore or inflamed eyes.
• Beverage tea: fresh or dried plant material steeped for general refreshment.

The plant belongs to a tradition of pennyroyal-type herbal use across the intermountain West. Belonging to a group of pulegone-rich, pennyroyal-type plants, Monardella is medicinally considered comparable to related genera Poliomintha and Hedeoma.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Essential Oil Profile

The primary phytochemical interest in M. odoratissima lies in its essential oil. Essential oil produced through steam distillation has been examined to establish the essential oil yield and both the achiral and chiral aromatic profiles. The resulting essential oils were analyzed by GC/MS, GC/FID, and MRR (molecular rotational resonance).

The essential oil composition of M. odoratissima is complex, containing 57% more detectable and identifiable volatile compounds than Agastache urticifolia, and includes additional prominent compounds such as sabinene (27.1%), β-pinene (2.1%), myrcene (4.3%), 1,8-cineole (12.1%), and citronellol (2.3%).

For M. odoratissima, the achiral essential oil profile is largely composed of limonene (27.7%), trans-β-ocimene (6.9%), and pulegone (4.3%).

This study, published in Molecules in 2023, for the first time established the achiral profile for M. odoratissima and the chiral profile for both M. odoratissima and A. urticifolia.

Between the two species, eight chiral pairs were analyzed and, interestingly, the dominant enantiomer (calculated as ee%) of limonene and pulegone switched between the two species. The chirality of individual terpene enantiomers is pharmacologically relevant because different enantiomers can differ in biological activity, odor, and metabolic fate.

Summary of Major Identified Volatile Compounds

• Limonene (27.7%): A cyclic monoterpene; the dominant compound identified in Utah-sourced material.
• Sabinene (27.1%): A bicyclic monoterpene; a prominent secondary constituent.
• 1,8-Cineole / Eucalyptol (12.1%): A monoterpene oxide well studied for anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and mucolytic properties.
• Pulegone (4.3%): A monoterpene ketone characteristic of pennyroyal-type plants; present at a lower proportion in M. odoratissima than in classical pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium).
• Myrcene (4.3%): An acyclic monoterpene.
• trans-β-Ocimene (6.9%): An acyclic monoterpene.
• β-Pinene (2.1%): A bicyclic monoterpene.
• Citronellol (2.3%): An acyclic monoterpene alcohol.

Pulegone, which is prominent in both M. odoratissima and related species, is not a common component of many essential oils; however, it is the prominent compound of Mentha pulegium (pennyroyal mint). The much lower proportional pulegone content in M. odoratissima (approximately 4.3% versus over 80% in classical pennyroyal oil) is a key point relevant to the safety profile of the two plants.

Non-Volatile Constituents

No specific peer-reviewed phytochemical studies isolating or quantifying non-volatile secondary metabolites (e.g., phenolic acids, flavonoids, rosmarinic acid) in M. odoratissima specifically were identified in the published literature reviewed for this article. Related Lamiaceae genera (including Monarda) are known to contain significant polyphenolic fractions, but such data have not been formally reported for M. odoratissima in indexed peer-reviewed literature.

4. Mechanisms of Action of Key Constituents

Because no isolated clinical or mechanistic studies exist for M. odoratissima as a whole plant or extract, the following section discusses mechanisms attributed to the major identified volatile constituents individually, based on peer-reviewed literature about those compounds. Extrapolation of these mechanisms to M. odoratissima is inferential and has not been validated in studies using this species directly.

1,8-Cineole (Eucalyptol)

The mucolytic monoterpene 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) is well known for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, bronchodilatory, antiviral, and antimicrobial effects. The main protective antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and mucolytic mechanisms of 1,8-cineole include the induction of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), the control of NF-κB, along with decreasing mucin genes (MUC2, MUC19).

The monoterpene 1,8-cineol is a natural plant-based therapeutic agent commonly applied to treat different inflammatory diseases due to its mucolytic, anti-microbial, and anti-inflammatory properties. It has become increasingly clear that 1,8-cineol spreads almost everywhere in the human body after oral administration, from the gut to the blood to the brain.

Its antimicrobial potential and even its antiviral effects have been observed to include numerous bacteria and fungi species. Many recent studies help to better understand the cellular and molecular immunological consequences of 1,8-cineol treatment in inflammatory diseases and further provide information concerning the mechanistic modes of action in the regulation of distinct inflammatory biosynthetic pathways.

Limonene

Most results indicate a satisfactory antimicrobial potential for limonene, besides providing important data and perspectives regarding the indication and clinical use in diseases that affect the oral cavity. Limonene may have potential anti-inflammatory efficacy for the treatment of bronchial asthma by inhibiting cytokines, ROS production, and inactivating eosinophil migration.

Pulegone

Pulegone is a monoterpene ketone. Pulegone is a monoterpene ketone present in essential oils from many mint species (e.g., Hedeoma pulegoides and Mentha pulegium, both called pennyroyal). Pennyroyal oil has been used as a flavoring agent in foods and beverages, a fragrant constituent, and a flea repellent. However, pulegone's relevance in the context of M. odoratissima is primarily as a minor constituent; its toxicological profile at high concentrations (see Safety section) is associated with classical pennyroyal oil (>80% pulegone), not with M. odoratissima.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Overview of Research Status

No clinical (human) trials, controlled studies, or systematic reviews have been published specifically on Monardella odoratissima as an intervention for any health condition. For the first time, a 2023 study established a robust foundational profile for Monardella odoratissima—one that can guide future research into this plant's pharmacological properties and taxonomic classification. The current scientific literature for this species is limited to:

• Phytochemical characterization of the essential oil (one published peer-reviewed study as of 2023).
• Ethnobotanical records of traditional use.
• Inferential mechanistic data based on its constituent compounds studied in isolation or in other species.

The broader genus Monarda has received more research attention. Only 49 original studies and reviews were retrieved from PubMed up to November 2020 about the chemical composition and biological activities of species from the Monarda genus — and even within those, M. odoratissima specifically was not the subject of clinical investigation.

5.2 Digestive and Carminative Uses

Traditional claim: The plant is carminative and febrifuge. A decoction of the stems and flower heads has been used in the treatment of flatulence and other digestive upsets, colds, and fevers.

Evidence assessment: These uses are supported only by ethnobotanical records attributed to Moerman's Native American Ethnobotany and derivative sources. No preclinical in vitro, animal, or human studies have been conducted specifically on M. odoratissima for these indications. The presence of 1,8-cineole and monoterpenes in the essential oil is consistent with the carminative properties observed in related Lamiaceae plants, but this represents mechanistic inference only. Evidence strength: Traditional/ethnobotanical only; no experimental evidence.

5.3 Respiratory and Febrifuge Uses

Traditional claim: Decoctions used for colds and fevers by indigenous peoples of western North America.

Evidence assessment: The importance of 1,8-cineole as adjunctive therapy to control systemic inflammation and to interact with guideline medications for respiratory conditions has been reviewed, and constituents present in M. odoratissima's essential oil (notably 1,8-cineole) are associated with respiratory anti-inflammatory activity in the literature. However, no studies have tested M. odoratissima extracts or preparations for respiratory indications in any model. Evidence strength: Traditional/ethnobotanical only; inferential chemical basis only.

5.4 Ophthalmic Use

Traditional claim: A decoction of the stems and flower heads has been used in the treatment of digestive upsets, colds, and fevers, and the decoction is also used as an eye wash for sore or inflamed eyes.

Evidence assessment: No scientific studies of any kind have evaluated M. odoratissima preparations for ophthalmic use. Evidence strength: Traditional/ethnobotanical only.

5.5 Antimicrobial Potential

Basis for claim: Monardella odoratissima is a member of the mint family, whose members are notable for their essential oils, and essential oils from Lamiaceae plants are broadly documented for antimicrobial properties.

Evidence assessment: The major identified constituents of M. odoratissima essential oil—1,8-cineole and limonene—have demonstrated antimicrobial activity in studies on other organisms. Two common essential oil constituents, 1,8-cineole and limonene, were assessed for antimicrobial activity using the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) microtitre plate method against eight organisms. The limonene enantiomers, singularly and in combination with 1,8-cineole, were investigated, with MIC values in the ranges 3–27 mg/ml for (+)-limonene; 2–27 mg/ml for (−)-limonene and 23 mg/ml for 1,8-cineole, depending on the pathogen studied. However, no antimicrobial studies have been performed using M. odoratissima oil or extracts directly. Evidence strength: Inferential from constituent compound literature; no studies on the species itself.

5.6 Anti-Inflammatory Potential

Basis for claim: The essential oil contains 1,8-cineole (12.1%), a compound with documented anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

Evidence assessment: 1,8-Cineol is a major monoterpene principally from eucalyptus essential oils and has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and inhibitory of nuclear factor (NF)-κB effects. 1,8-Cineole suppressed the secretion of IL-6 and IL-8 and increased the expression of IL-10 in the serum of LPS-induced mice, and reduced inflammatory infiltration in vascular tissues. Again, none of these findings derive from research on M. odoratissima. Evidence strength: Inferential from constituent compound literature; no studies on the species itself.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Traditional Use

• Digestive system: carminative for flatulence and digestive upsets.
• Immune/febrile response: febrifuge for colds and fevers.
• Respiratory tract: use for colds and upper respiratory symptoms.
• Ophthalmic: topical eye wash for sore or inflamed eyes.
• General culinary/aromatic use: as a mint-like flavoring and tea herb.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Doses

No standardized or clinically studied dosages have been published in peer-reviewed literature for Monardella odoratissima. The following are the only preparation-related details recoverable from available sources:

• Herbal tea: Fresh or dried aromatic leaves and flower heads steeped in cold water to make a refreshing mint-like tea. No concentration, volume, or frequency is specified in any published source.
• Decoction: A decoction of the stems and flower heads has been used in the treatment of flatulence and other digestive upsets, colds, and fevers. No specific decoction ratios or dosage quantities are given in peer-reviewed literature.
• Essential oil (research use only): Essential oil produced through steam distillation was examined to establish the essential oil yield and both the achiral and chiral aromatic profiles. No therapeutic dosage has been published.

No human clinical trials have been conducted that would generate evidence-based dosage recommendations for this species in any form.

8. Safety Considerations

General Safety Profile

No formal toxicological studies have been conducted specifically on Monardella odoratissima preparations. The following safety considerations are drawn from the toxicological literature on its identified chemical constituents, particularly pulegone, and from the broader pennyroyal plant literature.

Pulegone Content and Hepatotoxicity Risk

Pulegone and two other constituent terpenes, isopulegone and menthofuran, have been found to be both hepatotoxic and lung toxic. Pennyroyal oil, an aromatic mint-like oil used as a flavoring and fragrance agent and as a herbal medicine, caused acute hepatic and lung damage at doses of 400 mg/kg i.p. and higher in male Swiss-Webster mice.

Pulegone, isopulegone, and menthofuran were found to be both hepatotoxic and lung toxic. Based on results of histologic scoring of necrosis, plasma GPT elevations, and hepatic glutathione depletion, R-(+)-pulegone is the terpene primarily responsible for the tissue necrosis.

Hepatic injury caused by pulegone is largely due to the covalent binding of its reactive metabolite γ-ketoenal to cellular proteins in the liver.

Critically, the hepatotoxic data derive from studies on classical pennyroyal oil, in which pulegone constitutes the vast majority (>80%) of the essential oil. Capillary gas chromatographic analysis of samples of pennyroyal oil obtained from health food stores showed the presence of several monoterpene constituents. R-(+)-Pulegone was the major terpene and constituted greater than 80% of the constituent terpenes in the oils examined. By contrast, for M. odoratissima, the achiral essential oil profile shows pulegone at approximately 4.3% — a fraction substantially lower than in classical pennyroyal. Extrapolation of pennyroyal oil toxicity to M. odoratissima preparations is not scientifically straightforward, and no direct toxicity studies on M. odoratissima have been performed.

Regulatory Classification of Pulegone

Pulegone is a substance classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B) by the WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Because of the absence of a no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) in carcinogenicity studies, the benchmark dose (BMD) approach was employed, with the lowest BMDL of 4.8 mg/kg bw/day serving as the point of departure for calculating an acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 48 μg/kg bw/day — significantly lower than the previously established tolerable daily intake of 0.1 mg/kg bw/day set in 1997. The analysis also considered various genotoxicity studies, which indicate that pulegone's effects follow a nongenotoxic, thresholded mechanism.

Clinical Reports and Pennyroyal Toxicity

Pennyroyal oil is not recommended for oral intake, but cases of hepatotoxicity continue to be reported, largely from accidental or suicidal intake of the aromatic oil. A number of case reports provide evidence that ingestion of pennyroyal oil is associated with acute poisoning. Moderate to severe toxicity to the nervous system, liver, and kidneys with a duration of hours to days was reported; death occurred in some cases. Ingestion of less than 10 mL was generally associated with gastritis and mild central nervous system toxicity, but the effects reported after ingestion of different amounts were variable and depended on emetics or other treatments given.

Two cases of serious or fatal toxicity have been described in two infants who had been treated with herbal tea containing pennyroyal oil. One infant developed fulminant liver failure with cerebral edema and necrosis; the other infant developed hepatic dysfunction and a severe epileptic encephalopathy. These cases involved classical pennyroyal oil (Mentha pulegium or Hedeoma pulegoides), not M. odoratissima specifically.

The European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) clinical practice guideline for drug-induced liver injury (2019) recommends physicians consider herbal and dietary supplements as potential causative agents associated with liver injury, including pennyroyal, which has some of the highest levels of evidence supporting hepatotoxicity.

Implications for M. odoratissima Specifically

While M. odoratissima is classified as a pennyroyal-type plant and contains pulegone, its pulegone content is substantially lower than in Mentha pulegium. No hepatotoxicity cases, adverse event reports, or safety studies have been published specifically for M. odoratissima preparations. The long history of use as a food flavoring, cold-water infusion, and tea in indigenous and folk contexts, with no documented toxicity reports in the published literature, suggests a different risk profile from concentrated classical pennyroyal oil. Nonetheless, the IARC classification of pulegone (Group 2B) and the hepatotoxicity of concentrated pulegone-bearing oils constitute relevant background considerations, particularly for highly concentrated preparations such as distilled essential oils, and especially in vulnerable populations such as infants and pregnant women.

Pregnancy

Pennyroyal has been used to induce menstruation and abortion. However, pennyroyal oil, especially at high doses, has been reported to cause hepatic failure, central nervous system toxicity, gastritis, renal and pulmonary toxicity, and death. Because M. odoratissima contains pulegone (even at lower levels), caution is warranted in pregnancy. No specific reproductive toxicity data for M. odoratissima have been published.

9. Research Gaps and Current Status

The research landscape for Monardella odoratissima as a medicinal or dietary supplement ingredient is extremely sparse. The major evidence gaps include:

• No preclinical in vitro studies of antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, or antioxidant activity using plant extracts or oils of M. odoratissima.
• No animal studies examining any pharmacological or toxicological endpoint.
• No human or clinical trials of any design.
• No published phytochemical characterization of non-volatile (polyphenolic) constituents.
• No standardized extraction protocols, bioavailability data, or pharmacokinetic studies.
• No published safety or toxicological studies specific to this species.
• No pharmacopeial monograph in any major pharmacopeia (WHO, USP, European Pharmacopoeia, ESCOP, Commission E).

A 2023 study for the first time established a robust foundational chemical profile for Monardella odoratissima — one that can guide future research into the plant's pharmacological properties and taxonomic classification. The genus Monardella is endemic to western North America and has attracted relatively little attention from the global pharmacological research community compared to related genera such as Monarda, Mentha, or Agastache.

References

• Wikipedia — Monardella odoratissima
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• DOI: 10.3390/molecules28052249 — Wilson et al. (2023), Molecules
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• FDA/NCATS Global Substance Registration System (GSRS) — MONARDELLA ODORATISSIMA SUBSP. VILLOSA WHOLE