Phlebodium decumanum

Phlebodium decumanum: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Taxonomy

Scientific Classification

Phlebodium is a small genus of ferns in the family Polypodiaceae, subfamily Polypodioideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). Phlebodium decumanum is a species of fern in the family Polypodiaceae native to Mexico and Tropical America. Its species were formerly included in Polypodium. The currently accepted name is Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J.Sm., a species name first published in Journal of Botany (Hooker) 4: 59 (1841), and accepted by the World Flora Online.

Synonyms

The taxonomy of the species is complex, with numerous accepted synonyms including Campyloneurum decumanum (Willd.) Fée, Chrysopteris decumana (Willd.) Fée, Chrysopteris dictyocallis Fée, Chrysopteris multiserialis (T.Moore & Houlston) Fée, Phlebodium dictyocallis (Fée) J.Sm., Phlebodium multiseriale T.Moore & Houlston, Pleopeltis decumana (Willd.) C.Presl, Polypodium decumanum Willd., and Polypodium dictyocallis (Fée) Mett.

This Polypodiaceae, belonging to the subgenus Phlebodium within the genus Polypodium, was long considered to be Polypodium leucotomos, but was reclassified in 1992 according to in situ studies carried out by Prof. Cirile Nelson, Director of the Herbario TEFH, Department of Biology, UNAH (Tegucigalpa, Honduras), Prof. Sinn Sandberg of Uppsala University, and Prof. Antonio Molina from the Paul C. Stanley Herbario and the Escuela Agrícola Panamericana. This reclassification is particularly important in the scientific literature, as many earlier papers describing extracts of what was called Polypodium leucotomos from Honduras may in fact have used material now recognized as P. decumanum.

Common Names

Common names in English include "creeping golden polypody" and "golden polypod." In Central and South American vernacular use it is also widely referred to as calaguala and samambaia. In the eastern Amazon it is known as "guaribinha," as its root resembles that of the guariba monkey (Alouatta guariba). The common names "calaguala" and "huayhuashi-chupa" are also documented in Peruvian ethnobotanical records, as noted in studies from the Iquitos region.

Morphology and Natural Habitat

Members of the genus are epiphytic ferns, with a creeping, densely hairy or scaly rhizome bearing fronds at intervals along its length. The fronds are evergreen, persisting for one to two years, and are pinnatifid. The sori or groups of spore-cases (sporangia) are borne on the back of the frond. The species occurs from southern Mexico south deep into South America. The native range extends from Mexico to Tropical America, and it is an epiphyte.

Lake Yojoa, in northern Honduras, is one of the only sites in the world where both Phlebodium decumanum and Polypodium leucotomos are cultivated together. The Yojoa Lake region is the documented source of the principal standardized commercial extract.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Phlebodium decumanum, together with other tropical ferns commonly known as Calaguala, have been empirically applied since ancient times to ameliorate inflammatory disorders, skin diseases, and even cancer. It is highly related to P. leucotomos, and extracts from these ferns (named Calaguala) have been used in traditional Central American medicine. Previous reports have indicated an immunomodulatory effect of aqueous or hydromethanolic extracts of P. leucotomos.

Its fronds and rhizomes are regarded by many as medicinal. The species is an ethnomedicinal resource in several native communities in America. Phlebodium decumanum is used for the well-known "guariba cough" (intense cough) in the Amazon.

Phlebodium decumanum, also known as the bear paw fern, has been used for centuries as an anticancer and ulcer remedy.

Ethnobotanical records from Peru document P. decumanum under the names "cotochupa," "calaguala," and "huayhuashi-chupa" among native Amazonian communities. The species has been used in traditional medicine in northern Peru among communities with a documented healing culture spanning thousands of years, as reviewed by Bussmann and Sharon in their systematic ethnobotanical studies of the region.

Traditional Preparations

Traditionally, the rhizome of Phlebodium decumanum has been used in indigenous medicine for its purported anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating properties. Both the rhizome and the fronds have been used medicinally, with the rhizome representing the most common traditional medicinal part. Little chemical information has been reported specifically for the rhizomes in the scientific literature, though they are also used medicinally.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Frond Phytochemistry

The phytochemical composition of a hydroethanolic extract of P. decumanum fronds has been investigated using HPLC with UV-visible diode array detection and electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (QTOF-MS/MS). A chromatographic profile was established as a representative fingerprint of the compounds extracted from the fern. A total of 122 chemicals were characterized, including 23 flavonoids, 47 phenolic acids (34 hydroxycinnamic acids and 13 hydroxybenzoic acids), 9 amino and amino-sugar derivatives, 24 organic acids and their derivatives, and other metabolites, providing the first comprehensive characterization available on the phytochemical composition of the leaves of P. decumanum.

Rhizome Phytochemistry

Evaluation of the phytochemical profile of the hydroalcoholic extract of P. decumanum rhizomes through UPLC-MS/MS, as well as their phenolic and flavonoid content, identified 22 substances, with emphasis on phenolic acids, flavonoids, and hispidin — compounds which have biological activities that can explain the relationship of this natural resource with ethnomedicinal use. These 22 identified substances included phenolic compounds, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, and hispidin.

Other Identified Compounds

Further identified compounds include essential fatty acids, flavonoids, other polyphenols, triterpenes, and alkaloids.

Standardized Commercial Extract: EXPLY-37

The principal commercial extract is a water-soluble fraction obtained from the leaves of a cultivated variety of P. decumanum, purified and standardized, identified as EXPLY-37. The plant material from which EXPLY-37 is obtained comes from the Yojoa Lake region of northern Honduras. Formulations derived from this extract can contain, optionally, powdered Phlebodium decumanum rhizome and/or Phlebodium decumanum rhizome extract, together with appropriate excipients for preparation as powders, capsules, and syrups.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Mechanisms

The immunomodulatory activity of EXPLY-37, previously shown to have in vivo anti-inflammatory activity, was characterized in vitro. The extract inhibited tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production by macrophages activated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or LPS plus interferon (IFN)-gamma. Nitric oxide (NO) and interleukin (IL)-1beta production were not affected in the same cultures, whereas IL-6 production was partially inhibited. More interestingly, EXPLY-37 increased the release of soluble TNF-receptor 2 (sTNFR2) and of IL-1R antagonist (IL-1Ra) but not of sTNFR1, by activated macrophages.

At the molecular level, EXPLY-37 did not inhibit the activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) transcription factor by TNF. In summary, EXPLY-37 has two anti-inflammatory activities in vitro: it decreases TNF production and increases IL-1Ra and sTNFR2, which may be able to neutralize IL-1 and TNF activity, respectively.

EXPLY-37 had no effect on T lymphocyte activation, measured as proliferation as well as expression of early and late cell surface antigens CD69, CD25 (IL-2R-alpha), and CD71 (transferrin receptor) at the cell membrane. This selective profile — suppressing macrophage-driven TNF without globally suppressing lymphocyte function — distinguishes the extract's activity from broad immunosuppressive agents.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

Oral supplementation of P. decumanum during high-intensity exercise was shown to reduce the inflammatory response through the decrease of TNF-α and increase of sTNF-RII, but kept the levels of IL-6 and IL-1ra. The antioxidant activity has been attributed to the rich polyphenolic constituents, particularly the hydroxycinnamic acids and hydroxybenzoic acids identified in the frond extract.

Potential Antineoplastic Mechanisms

There are evidences of antineoplastic potential and anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant properties of the extract. Preliminary studies have also shown direct antitumor activity of the extracts. These findings remain at the preclinical stage and the mechanisms underlying putative antineoplastic effects have not yet been fully elucidated in the peer-reviewed literature.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Exercise — Human Clinical Evidence

Strenuous exercise induces muscle damage due to a highly increased generation of free radicals and inflammatory response. A published study investigated, for the first time, whether a purified, standardized water-soluble fraction obtained from P. decumanum could reduce the over-expression of inflammation and oxidative stress induced by strenuous exercise. The physical test consisted of a constant run that combined several degrees of high effort (mountain run and ultra-endurance), in permanent climbing. Biochemical parameters, oxidative stress, and inflammatory mediators were assessed. The results showed that oral supplementation of P. decumanum during high-intensity exercise effectively reduced the degree of oxidative stress (decreased 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and isoprostanes generation, increased antioxidant enzyme activities) and reduced the inflammatory response through the decrease of TNF-α and increase of sTNF-RII, but kept the levels of IL-6 and IL-1ra. In conclusion, oral supplementation of P. decumanum extract during high-intensity exercise effectively reduces the degree of oxidative stress and has anti-inflammatory protective effects, preventing the over-expression of TNF-α but keeping the levels and effects of IL-6.

Evidence characterization: This is a peer-reviewed human interventional study published in European Journal of Applied Physiology (2012), but the study population was small and specifically involved competitive athletes engaged in extreme endurance effort. Generalizability to broader populations is limited.

5.2 Immune Response in Sedentary Subjects — Human Clinical Evidence

Exercise training is considered a good model to provoke different degrees of immune dysfunction affecting physical performance and some physiological responses related to oxidative stress and low-grade inflammation. Phlebodium decumanum has shown immunomodulating effects, specifically directed to the release of proinflammatory cytokines by macrophages in response to various stimuli, as reported in different in vitro studies. A study evaluated the modulating effect of P. decumanum on the immune response induced by physical exercise. Thirty-one subjects (males only) were randomly divided into two groups: Group PD (n = 18; age 22.1 ± 1.81, weight 74.21 ± 8.74 kg) treated with P. decumanum, and Group P (n = 13; age 22.5 ± 1.63, weight 78 ± 12.5 kg) treated with a placebo. The administration of P. decumanum induced a reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and a higher concentration of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Anti-inflammatory cytokines have a protective and modulating effect on the immune response.

Evidence characterization: This randomized controlled study, published in a peer-reviewed journal (2013), was limited to young adult males and had a small sample size. The findings are consistent with earlier in vitro work but cannot be considered definitive without larger, more diverse trials.

5.3 Cortisol and Testosterone Response to Exercise — Human Clinical Evidence

Background research identified P. decumanum as a fern that could have an immune or stress response modulating action. A study evaluated whether a preparation of P. decumanum modifies exercise-induced changes in plasma levels of testosterone and cortisol. Fourteen male subjects aged 22 ± 2 years were randomized to consume P. decumanum and 10 subjects aged 23 ± 1 years were given a placebo. Both groups performed a standard exercise program three times a week during one month. Plasma free testosterone and cortisol levels were measured before and 48 hours after the last session. Cortisol levels increased significantly from 18.9 ± 6.8 to 26.2 ± 5.9 μg/dl in the control group. In the group consuming the study product, no changes were detected (20.0 ± 4.6 and 20.9 ± 5.9 μg/dl before and after the exercise program, respectively). The cortisol levels increased significantly in the control group but not in the study group, leading to the suggestion that consumption of P. decumanum would be able to modulate the response of this hormone to physical stress.

Evidence characterization: This was a small randomized trial (n = 24 total) published in Revista Médica de Chile (2009). The sample size is too small to draw firm conclusions, and data on testosterone response were not prominently reported. Findings are preliminary and require replication.

5.4 Sports Performance in Volleyball Players — Human Clinical Evidence

The administration of nutritional supplements with antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties, such as P. decumanum and coenzyme Q10, was considered a potentially advantageous means of achieving recovery from inflammation and tissue damage. An experimental, longitudinal, double-blind experiment was conducted with three randomized groups from a sample of 30 male volleyball players (aged 22–32 years) at the University of Granada, with a high level of training (17 hours per week during the six months preceding the study). All the study groups presented favourable adaptive changes with respect to the endocrine-metabolic and immune profile, as reflected by a significant decrease in post-test concentrations of cortisol, interleukin-6, lactic acid, and ammonium. The groups that achieved the most favourable profile were those which had received nutritional supplementation rather than placebo, and among the former, those which had received the combined supplement of P. decumanum plus coenzyme Q10.

A separate study examined the effects of P. decumanum supplementation on a national volleyball team during a precompetitive mesocycle. Twenty-four male volleyball players were divided into two groups (experimental and control). The experimental group was supplemented with three PHL capsules in the morning and three in the afternoon for 20 days. Blood samples were taken before training, at the end of the third week and at the end of the fourth week to evaluate creatine kinase (CK), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and cortisol. The results showed that in the control group, cortisol was significantly increased at the third time point. In the experimental group, however, a significant increase was only observed in the third IL-10 value.

Evidence characterization: Both studies involved small, male-only cohorts of athletes from the University of Granada, published in Spanish-language journals. While the direction of findings is consistent, these studies cannot be considered definitive clinical evidence due to small sample sizes, the lack of independent replication, and restriction to trained male athletes.

5.5 Muscle Damage in Sedentary Subjects — Human Clinical Evidence

Phlebodium decumanum has been shown to have immunomodulator effects in models of moderate intense physical activities in well-conditioned groups. A separate study evaluated PD effects during eccentric exercise, as a model of muscle inflammation protocol, on a sedentary population with cardiovascular risk. This study (published in Nutrición Hospitalaria, 2014) extended the earlier exercise-focused research to a higher-risk, sedentary population, though detailed clinical results were not publicly available in the accessible abstract.

Evidence characterization: The cluster of Spanish research into exercise and P. decumanum is internally consistent, but the entire body of human evidence is derived from a relatively small number of Spanish research groups, predominantly involving male athletes or young adult males, and does not yet include large-scale, multi-center, or independently replicated trials.

5.6 Application in Cachectic Syndrome (AIDS and Cancer) — Patent-Level and Preclinical Evidence

A purified and standardized water-soluble fraction identified as EXPLY-37 was specifically developed and patented for use as a nutritional supplement, particularly in patients suffering from general weakness and cachectic syndrome in AIDS and cancer patients. Treatment of cachectic syndrome in patients with advanced HIV infection was described as best performed by administration of daily doses between 1 and 5 g of EXPLY-37. Similar doses were indicated as adequate for treatment of cachectic syndrome in cancer patients, as an adjuvant in conventional anti-cancer treatments and in recovery following those treatments. Such formulations were also described as potentially usable during the application of antiretroviral drugs in AIDS patients and conventional cancer treatments (surgery and/or radio- and chemotherapy) to improve their effectiveness and reduce side effects.

Evidence characterization: These applications are described in a patent filing (US6228366B1) and are not backed by published peer-reviewed randomized controlled trials in the accessible literature. The patent describes clinical case observations but these do not constitute formal clinical trial evidence. This area should be regarded as preliminary and investigational.

5.7 In Vitro Anti-inflammatory Activity — Cell/Mechanistic Evidence

The in vitro work by Punzón, Alcaide, and Fresno (2003), published in International Immunopharmacology, represents the most detailed mechanistic characterization of P. decumanum extract activity. The key summary finding is that EXPLY-37 decreases TNF production and increases IL-1Ra and sTNFR2, which may be able to neutralize IL-1 and TNF activity, respectively. The extract inhibited TNF production by macrophages activated with LPS or LPS plus IFN-gamma; nitric oxide (NO) and IL-1beta production were not affected, whereas IL-6 production was partially inhibited; EXPLY-37 increased the release of sTNFR2 and of IL-1Ra; and EXPLY-37 had no effect on T lymphocyte activation, measured as proliferation as well as expression of early and late cell surface antigens CD69, CD25 (IL-2R-alpha) and CD71 at the cell membrane.

Evidence characterization: In vitro cell culture data. While the study is rigorous and published in a peer-reviewed journal, in vitro findings cannot be directly extrapolated to in vivo clinical outcomes.

5.8 Antineoplastic Potential — Preliminary/Preclinical Evidence

There are evidences of antineoplastic potential and anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant properties of the extract. Preliminary studies have also shown direct antitumor activity of the extracts. These findings are preclinical in nature and no published peer-reviewed clinical trials examining P. decumanum specifically as an antineoplastic agent in human subjects were identified in the accessible literature.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Immune system: Modulation of macrophage-derived cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1Ra, sTNFR2) demonstrated in both in vitro and human exercise studies.
• Musculoskeletal system: Reduction of exercise-induced oxidative DNA damage, isoprostane production, and creatine kinase elevation in human studies involving athletes and sedentary subjects.
• Endocrine system: Attenuation of exercise-induced cortisol elevation demonstrated in a small randomized trial.
• Skin: Traditional use for inflammatory skin conditions; in vitro evidence of anti-inflammatory activity relevant to dermatological conditions; early evidence of antineoplastic potential.
• Respiratory system: Traditional use in the Amazon for intense ("guariba") cough.
• Gastrointestinal/nutritional: Application as a nutritional supplement specifically adequate for treatment of malnutrition, body weight loss, generalized wasting, and cachectic syndrome in AIDS patients, as described in patent literature.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Formulations may contain the water-soluble leaf extract (EXPLY-37), optionally combined with powdered Phlebodium decumanum rhizome and/or rhizome extract, with excipients suitable for preparation as powders, capsules, and syrups.

The following specific dosages and formulations have been reported in peer-reviewed studies and patent filings:

• Volleyball players study (Nutr Hosp, 2015): Phlebodium decumanum administered as 4 capsules of 400 mg per capsule daily (total 1,600 mg/day).
• National volleyball team precompetitive study: Experimental group supplemented with three PHL capsules in the morning and three in the afternoon for 20 days.
• Cachectic syndrome in advanced HIV infection (patent US6228366): Daily doses of 1 to 5 g expressed as EXPLY-37.
• Soft gelatine capsule formulations (patent): Formulations described containing from 50 to 750 mg of the water-soluble leaf extract or from 50 to 750 mg of rhizome extract in a soft gelatine capsule.
• Hard gelatine capsule formulations (patent): Hard gelatine capsules containing from 100 to 500 mg of dry powder.
• Syrup formulation (patent): Syrup with a concentration of EXPLY-37 ranging from 20 to 500 mg/ml.

No universally established recommended daily intake (RDI) or officially recognized dosage range exists for P. decumanum as a dietary supplement, as no regulatory body such as the U.S. FDA, EMA, or EFSA has issued a formal monograph or approved dose for this species specifically.

8. Safety Considerations

Reported Tolerability in Human Studies

The human studies conducted with P. decumanum supplementation in the exercise physiology context — including trials in sedentary adults, recreational athletes, and national-level volleyball players — did not report serious adverse events or safety signals attributable to the extract in the published abstracts and available data. The study designs used for up to 4–6 weeks of supplementation at doses in the range of 1,600 mg/day (capsular) reported adaptive endocrine-metabolic and immune profile changes without adverse events being noted as primary outcomes.

Relationship to Polypodium leucotomos

Because of the historical confusion between P. decumanum and P. leucotomos, the safety profile of the closely related P. leucotomos extract — which has been more extensively studied in dermatological and photobiology research — is frequently cited in contextual discussions. P. decumanum is highly related to P. leucotomos and extracts from both ferns (named Calaguala) have been used in traditional Central American medicine. Previous reports have indicated an immunomodulatory effect of aqueous or hydromethanolic extracts of P. leucotomos. The safety information established for P. leucotomos is not automatically transferable to P. decumanum but provides contextual information given their botanical proximity and shared extract history.

Selective Rather Than Broad Immunosuppression

A mechanistically important safety observation is that EXPLY-37 increased the release of sTNFR2 and IL-1Ra by activated macrophages, but EXPLY-37 had no effect on T lymphocyte activation, measured as proliferation as well as expression of early and late cell surface antigens CD69, CD25 (IL-2R-alpha) and CD71 at the cell membrane. This suggests that the extract modulates innate immune signaling without broadly suppressing adaptive lymphocyte-mediated immunity, a distinction with potential relevance to infection risk.

Limitations of Safety Data

The available human study literature on P. decumanum specifically is limited in scope, predominantly involves healthy young adult males over study durations of one to two months, and does not include formal dose-escalation toxicology studies, reproductive toxicity studies, or long-term safety surveillance published in the peer-reviewed literature. No formal systematic review or meta-analysis of P. decumanum safety in humans was identified. The evidence base for this species is substantially smaller than for its congener P. leucotomos/P. aureum, which has been more extensively reviewed in dermatological research contexts.

Taxonomic Caution in Safety Attribution

The plant was long considered to be Polypodium leucotomos before reclassification in 1992 according to in situ studies. Researchers and consumers should therefore be cautious in assuming that all safety and efficacy data published for "Polypodium leucotomos" products originating from Honduras applies directly to P. decumanum, as some commercial products and earlier studies may not distinguish between the two taxa.

9. Evidence Limitations and Research Gaps

The overall evidence base for P. decumanum as a dietary supplement is best characterized as preliminary to moderately suggestive in specific areas (exercise-related oxidative stress and immunomodulation), with most human studies being small, male-only, and from a single Spanish research cluster. Key gaps include:

• No large-scale, multi-center randomized controlled trials.
• No published clinical trial data in HIV/AIDS or oncology patients (apart from patent filings and case observations).
• No systematic review or meta-analysis specific to P. decumanum (as distinct from P. leucotomos).
• No published formal pharmacokinetic studies in humans.
• Mechanisms responsible for antineoplastic activity demonstrated in preliminary studies remain unexplored at the clinical level.
• No studies in female subjects, elderly populations, or subjects with chronic disease (outside the cachectic syndrome patent filings).

References

• Wikipedia: Phlebodium decumanum
• GBIF Backbone Taxonomy: Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J.Sm.
• World Flora Online: Phlebodium decumanum J.Sm.
• Wikipedia: Phlebodium (genus)
• Punzón C, Alcaide A, Fresno M. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity of Phlebodium decumanum. Modulation of tumor necrosis factor and soluble TNF receptors. Int Immunopharmacol. 2003;3(9):1293–1299. PubMed
• Punzón et al. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity of Phlebodium decumanum. ScienceDirect
• Díaz-Castro J et al. Phlebodium decumanum is a natural supplement that ameliorates the oxidative stress and inflammatory signalling induced by strenuous exercise in adult humans. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112(8):3119–28. PubMed
• Gonzalez-Jurado JA et al. Effect of Phlebodium Decumanum on the Immune Response Induced by Training in Sedentary University Students. PMC/PubMed Central
• Effect of phlebodium decumanum on the immune response induced by training in sedentary university students. PubMed
• Gonzalez-Jurado JA et al. Effects of the consumption of Phlebodium Decumanum on plasma cortisol and testosterone levels in subjects participating in an exercise program. Rev Med Chil. 2009;137(4):497–503. PubMed
• Effect of phlebodium decumanum and coenzyme Q10 on sports performance in professional volleyball players. PubMed
• Benefits of Decumanum Phlebodium intake on the muscle damage in the response to intense physical exercise in sedentary subjects. PubMed
• Effect of Phlebodium Decumanum on muscle damage, inflammation and cortisol during a precompetitive mesocycle in a National Volleyball Team. University of Granada repository
• Malagón S, Vilchez JL. Analysis of Phlebodium decumanum Fronds by HPLC–UV–VIS–QTOF–MS/MS. Analytical Letters. 2019;52(13):2107–2132.
• UPLC-MS/MS analysis and chemical profile of Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J. Sm. rhizomes, an ethnomedicinal resource from American Rain Forests. International Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 2025.
• US Patent 6,228,366: Water-soluble fractions of Phlebodium decumanum and its use as nutritional supplement in AIDS and cancer patients. USPTO.
• EP1040834A1: Hydrosoluble fractions of Phlebodium decumanum and use thereof as nutritional complements in AIDS and cancer patients. European Patent Office.
• Polypodium overview. ScienceDirect Topics (Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science).
• Application of the Theory of Signatures to Validate the Use of Medicinal Plants in the Riverside Area of Amazonia, Brazil. IntechOpen.
• Calaguala or Samambaia fern, Phlebodium decumanum. Backyard Nature / Jim Conrad's Naturalist Newsletter.