IngredientsPlukenetia volubilis Linneo (sacha inchi) is a native plant of the Peruvian jungle that belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family, which encompasses 300 genera and 7,500 species. The genus name Plukenetia honors Leonard Plukenet (1641–1706), an English botanist and physician who served as Royal Professor of Botany and gardener to Queen Mary II. The specific epithet volubilis derives from the Latin meaning "twining" or "turning," describing the plant's climbing habit as a perennial vine.
Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, sacha peanut, mountain peanut, Inca nut, or Inca-peanut, is a perennial plant in the family Euphorbiaceae, having small trichomes on its leaves. It is native to tropical South America and the Caribbean. The most commonly used vernacular name, sacha inchi, originates from the Quechua language spoken by indigenous peoples of the Andes and Amazon, where sacha means "wild" or "false" and inchi refers to "peanut" or "nut," reflecting its resemblance to peanuts and its traditional use as an edible seed.
Less common names for P. volubilis include sacha yachi, sacha yuchi, sacha yuchiqui, yuchi, sampannankii, suwaa, correa, amauebe, amui-o, manà de arbol, and manÃ. Plukenetia volubilis is a perennial liana with large, oleaginous seeds. Plukenetia volubilis should not be confused with Caryodendron orinocense, which is commonly known as inchi, cacay, or orinoconut.
The plant reaches a height of 2 metres, with alternate, heart-shaped, serrated leaves 2–6 cm long. It flowers five months after being planted and bears seeds around the eighth month. The male flowers are small, white, and arranged in clusters. Two female flowers are located at the base of the inflorescence. In tropical locations it is often a vine requiring support and producing seeds nearly year-round.
In the Amazon rainforest in Peru, it has been cultivated by indigenous people for centuries and will grow in warm climates up to altitudes of 1,700 m as long as there is continued availability of water and good drainage. It grows better in acidic soils and alluvial flats near rivers. It is cultivated commercially in Southeast Asia, most notably in Thailand. Its range extends from the Lesser Antilles, Suriname, and the northwestern sector of the Amazon basin in Venezuela and Colombia to Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil.
This plant has generated interest for utilization of different parts—seeds, seed shells, and leaves—and has been utilized to generate nutritional, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical products with the goal of maximizing its economic value. The primary commercial forms derived from P. volubilis include:
The antinutrients in sacha inchi seeds can be reduced by roasting prior to extraction. Various extractions, including both conventional and novel methods, have been used to extract sacha inchi oil. However, the variety of extraction methods and origins of the seeds change the nutrient profiles, antinutrient content, and physicochemical properties.
Plukenetia volubilis, commonly referred to as the Inca peanut, is an ancient oilseed crop with a rich cultural history and promising industrial potential. Native to the Amazonian regions of Peru, it has been cultivated for over 3,000 years, with archaeological evidence linking its use to pre-Incan civilizations.
It is a crop planted by ancient pre-Inca cultures such as the Mochica and Chimú civilizations, whose main physical and organoleptic characteristics were first described by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, and which Linné later called Plukenetia volubilis.
Because of their nutrients, roasted seeds, cooked leaves, and seed oil are part of the traditional diets in Peru. Traditionally, the seeds are roasted, while the leaves are cooked and consumed as part of the routine diet. Sacha inchi seeds are also used as traditional remedy in the Amazon region to treat rheumatic problems and aching muscles. Pharmaceutically, SIO has also been used traditionally in skincare treatment, mainly to soften skin, heal wounds, treat insect bites, and address skin infections.
The people of indigenous tribes of the Peruvian Amazon consume sacha inchi almonds as an energizer, to regain strength after labor-intensive work. The women of these communities mix flour with oil from this Inca peanut, which they apply as a rejuvenating and revitalizing skin cream; they also rub the seed oil on their bodies to relieve rheumatic and muscular pains.
In Vietnamese folk medicine, Plukenetia volubilis is used as an anti-arthritis remedy. P. volubilis L. (sacha inchi) is part of a selected list of the most promising plants in Peruvian traditional medicine, attributed to the location where it has been described historically, jointly with Smallanthus sonchifolius (yacon root), Croton lechleri (dragon's blood), and Uncaria tomentosa.
In the 1970s, a former Peruvian minister for agriculture screened the potential of the Amazonian region for new types of food crops, thus rediscovering sacha inchi and describing its chemical and nutritional attributes. The first scientific mention of Plukenetia volubilis L. was made in 1980 by researchers at Cornell University, USA, who demonstrated that the seeds have a high protein (33%) and oil (49%) content, among other nutrients and vitamins. Sacha inchi has shown its potential as a source of food among tribes, as a novel food, and the whole plant as a substance Generally Regarded As Safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration.
The sacha inchi seed extract predominantly contains lipids (35–60%), represented by polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) like α-linolenic acid or ALA (C18:3, ω-3; 47–51%) and linoleic acid or LA (C18:2, ω-6; 34–37%), in addition to monounsaturated fatty acids like oleic acid (~9.5%), saturated fatty acids like palmitic (4.4%) and stearic (2.7%) acids, proteins (25–33%), and other minor compounds.
A 93% amount of total fatty acids is represented by unsaturated fatty acids, with the greatest percentages represented by linoleic and linolenic acids, accounting for approximately 50% and 36%, respectively. A high α-linolenic (ALA) fatty acid content was found across cultivars (ω-3, 12.8–16.0 g/100 g seed), followed by linoleic fatty acid (ω-6, 12.4–14.1 g/100 g seed). The ratio ω-6/ω-3 was within the 0.83–1.09 range. This near 1:1 ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 is considered nutritionally favorable.
Sacha inchi contains ALA ω-3 fatty acids between 45% and 54%, linoleic omega-6 acid at 36%, and oleic omega-9 acid at 9%. As a comparison, fish oil contains between 0.1% and 5.2% of ALA ω-3, but 10% to 20% eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA ω-3) and 8% to 15% docosahexaenoic acid (DHA ω-3). This distinction is important: unlike marine-derived EPA and DHA, the omega-3 in sacha inchi oil is ALA, which requires endogenous conversion in humans.
The seeds contain lipids (35–60%) and proteins (25–30%), including essential amino acids such as cysteine, tyrosine, threonine, and tryptophan. The protein content in the oil press-cake residue was significant at 41.86%, with a balanced amino acid composition including essential amino acids such as leucine, valine, and isoleucine, which are vital for muscle protein synthesis and energy metabolism. The seeds also contain a significant amount of essential amino acids such as cysteine, tyrosine, methionine, and tryptophan.
Among tocopherols, γ-tocopherol was detected to be the most abundant component (over 50%). γ- and δ-tocopherols were the most important tocopherols. Because of its high content of γ- and δ-tocopherols, sacha inchi oil is, despite its high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, comparably stable against oxidation. Its main tocopherol is gamma-tocopherol (120.41–125.69 mg/100 g).
Fourteen sterols and eleven alcohols have been identified in sacha inchi oil, with β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, Δ5-avenasterol, triterpene alcohol, lanosterol isomer 1, and cycloartenol being the major components. Sacha inchi oil also contains phytosterols such as stigmasterols (346–456 µg/g), sitosterols (435–563 µg/g), and campesterols (10.47% ± 4.36%). The total sterol content ranged from 1,623 to 2,899 mg/kg.
The polyphenolic composition of sacha inchi oil has been investigated, with a total of 15 compounds positively identified. Condensed and hydrolysable tannins, lignans, flavonoids, and phenolic acids are the major bioactives in sacha inchi seed and the shell. Sacha inchi leaves are a source of terpenoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds (flavonoids). Contents of total phenolics ranged from 64.6 to 80 mg of gallic acid equivalent per 100 g seed, and total carotenoids from 0.07 to 0.09 mg of β-carotene equivalent per 100 g seed across cultivars.
When raw, P. volubilis seeds and leaves contain appreciable amounts of alkaloids, saponins, and lectins, which may be toxic if consumed before cooking, but are degraded by roasting. Antinutritional factors detected in the oil press-cake include saponins (1,050.1 ± 1.1 mg/100 g), alkaloids (2.1 ± 0.5 mg/100 g), and tannins (6.2 ± 0.9 mg/100 g). However, more refined safety analyses of whole seeds present a nuanced picture (see Safety section below).
The main minerals present in sacha inchi seeds are potassium (5,563.5 ppm), magnesium (3,210 ppm), and calcium (2,406 ppm).
Omega-3 fatty acids exert lowering effects in hyperlipidaemic patients by decreasing hepatic lipogenesis, increasing β-oxidation, inhibiting key enzymes involved in hepatic triglyceride synthesis, and increasing the expression of lipoprotein lipase, leading to increased triglyceride removal from circulating VLDL and chylomicron particles.
Proposed therapeutic effects of sacha inchi in inflammatory conditions include modulating gut microbiota, targeting inflammatory cells and pathways, and mimicking biological agents. Sacha inchi husk extract has been found to increase beneficial bacteria such as Akkermansia species. This increase in beneficial bacteria reduced common inflammatory indicators such as C-reactive protein (CRP), as certain Lactobacillus species can inhibit the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-17, and IL-23) that are mediated by Th17 cells, while increasing the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10).
Multiple investigations have shown that sacha inchi oil possesses various pharmacological qualities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective benefits. The high γ- and δ-tocopherol content contributes directly to free-radical scavenging capacity, which is hypothesized to underlie at least part of the observed anti-inflammatory and skin-protective activities.
The oil stands out because of its elevated levels of linolenic (ω-3) and linoleic (ω-6) acids, which account for approximately 45% and 35% of the total unsaturated fatty acids, respectively. These fatty acids are associated with benefits in preventing cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and hypertension. Phytosterols such as β-sitosterol and stigmasterol are well-characterized competitive inhibitors of cholesterol absorption in the gut—a mechanism implicated in sacha inchi's documented effects on lipid profiles.
This is the most studied area of clinical application for P. volubilis.
Pilot open study (2011): A pilot, experimental, open study was conducted to know the effect, effective dosage, and secondary effects of sacha inchi oil on the lipid profiles of patients with hypercholesterolemia. Twenty-four patients aged 35 to 75 were randomized to receive sacha inchi oil orally at 5 ml or 10 ml of a suspension (2 g/5 ml) for four months. The oil intake produced a decrease in mean values of total cholesterol and non-esterified fatty acids, and a rise in HDL in both subgroups. The subgroup receiving 10 ml was associated with an increase in insulin levels. The authors concluded that sacha inchi oil appears to have beneficial effects on lipid profiles of patients with dyslipidemia, but that efficacy and safety should be evaluated in randomized clinical trials. This study is considered preliminary due to its open-label, uncontrolled design and small sample.
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (2014): This study was designed to assess acceptability and side effects of consumption of sacha inchi oil, rich in α-linolenic acid, compared to sunflower oil, rich in linoleic acid, in adult human subjects. Thirty subjects received 10 or 15 ml daily of sacha inchi or sunflower oil for 4 months. Acceptability was assessed with daily self-report and with a Likert test at the end of the study. Safety was assessed with self-recording of side-effects and with hepatic and renal markers. Primary efficacy variables were changes in lipid profile. Subjects reported low acceptability of sacha inchi oil at week 1 (37.5%). However, since week 6, acceptability increased significantly to 81.25–93.75%.
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 3H patients (2025): A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled human clinical trial was conducted to investigate the effects of sacha inchi oil supplementation in fifty-four (n = 54) patients with hyperglycemia, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia (3Hs). Patients were randomised into an SIO group (n = 27, receiving 1,000 mg of SIO soft gel per day) or a placebo group (n = 27, receiving 1,000 mg of corn oil), with prescribed medications, and assessments of glycemic control, blood pressure, and lipid profiles were compared at baseline and week 12.
A pioneer double-blind, randomised, crossover trial found that 15 ml SIO supplementation into a high-fat breakfast among metabolically unhealthy individuals reduced blood glucose levels and increased Sirtuin (SIRT-1) expression, a protein that enhances insulin secretion and activates insulin pathways. Contradictorily, a 4-month trial (10 or 15 ml SIO supplementation given to healthy adults) did not exhibit any significant change in regular and fasting blood glucose levels.
Evidence assessment: Human clinical data on dyslipidemia are preliminary and encouraging. The existing trials are generally small (n = 24–54), of short duration, and use heterogeneous patient populations. Effect sizes and dose-response relationships have not been firmly established. Larger randomized controlled trials are required to substantiate these findings.
Sacha inchi has pharmacological effects including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemia, and blood pressure lowering. Among these, the study of its anti-inflammatory effects has become a particularly interesting topic, especially in rheumatoid arthritis (RA).
In Vietnamese folk medicine, Plukenetia volubilis is used as an anti-arthritis remedy. P. volubilis leaf extract demonstrated a remarkable anti-arthritis effect on mice and modulated production of inflammatory cytokines. P. volubilis is considered a potential therapeutic medicine for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. This work, however, was conducted entirely in animal models (Complete Freund's Adjuvant-induced arthritis in mice) and no human clinical trials specifically targeting rheumatoid arthritis have been conducted with sacha inchi to date.
Evidence assessment: Evidence for anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects is currently limited to pre-clinical (in vitro and animal) models. No controlled human trials specifically assessing inflammatory outcomes of P. volubilis have been published. This remains an area of active research interest.
Sacha inchi oil has demonstrated potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties; however, the mechanism underlying the beneficial effects of sacha inchi oil on atopic dermatitis remains unclear. A 2024 PubMed-indexed study evaluated sacha inchi oil's therapeutic effects in an atopic dermatitis mouse model, but human data specific to this indication are lacking.
Sacha inchi albumin exhibits considerable functional activity with notable anti-inflammatory and antioxidation properties, which could delay skin aging. The study of sacha inchi albumin in d-galactose-induced aging mice found that it improved moisture content, collagen level, and the state of aged skin. Sacha inchi albumin intervention markedly increased the skin antioxidant enzymatic activities including those of glutathione. This study was conducted in rodents, and human clinical evidence for dermatological applications remains absent from the peer-reviewed literature.
Evidence assessment: Topical and nutraceutical applications for skin are supported by pre-clinical data, historical use, and mechanistic plausibility (tocopherols, essential fatty acids), but human clinical trial evidence is lacking. Claims of skin benefits should be regarded as preliminary.
In vivo, in vitro, and clinical studies have suggested beneficial effects of sacha inchi for a variety of indications including neuroprotection. Multiple investigations have shown that the oil possesses neuroprotective benefits. The mechanistic basis is hypothesized to relate to the high ALA content, which is a precursor to longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids (EPA, DHA) important in brain structure and function—though the efficiency of ALA conversion to EPA/DHA in humans is known to be low and variable.
Evidence assessment: Neuroprotective claims rest largely on mechanistic inference from ALA content and limited preclinical data. No published human trials have directly assessed neurological outcomes with P. volubilis supplementation.
The rich fractions of polyunsaturated fatty acids in sacha inchi oil have shown potential in improving or reducing the impact of hyperglycemia, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia for both in vivo and preliminary human studies. As noted above, findings from human trials on glycemic control are conflicting, with one crossover trial showing reduced blood glucose and another 4-month trial in healthy adults showing no significant change in fasting blood glucose.
Evidence assessment: Mixed and preliminary. Human data are insufficient to draw conclusions about glycemic effects. The 3H trial design (patients on prescribed medications) limits attribution of effects to sacha inchi oil alone.
An extract of sacha inchi oil press-cake showed cytotoxic effects against Panc-1 cancer cells in vitro, highlighting its potential in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. Clinical and in vivo studies have also suggested antiproliferative and antitumor modulation activities.
Evidence assessment: Entirely in vitro and preclinical. No human evidence for antitumor activity exists. These findings should not be interpreted as evidence of clinical efficacy.
Sacha Inchi is recognized as a superior bioresource, and its bioactivity has been reported in various aspects, including antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, anti-cancer, cardioprotective, and immune-regulatory activities. Based on published research, the following body systems have been investigated:
Dosages reported across published studies vary considerably. Only study-reported dosages are cited here:
Sacha inchi seeds also contain protein (24.20%–33.30%), carbohydrates (6.59%–30.90%), fiber (6.61%–11.30%), ash (2.70%–6.46%), tocopherols (137 mg/100 g), and phytosterols (75 mg/100 g). No universally agreed therapeutic dosage has been established by any regulatory or pharmacopeial body. Study dosages ranged from 1,000 mg (softgel) to 15 ml per day of the oil, and 5–10 ml in older open-label studies.
Consumption of fresh/raw sacha inchi seeds may cause mild to severe toxicity to humans due to the presence of phytotoxins such as alkaloids, lectins, and saponins. Alkaloids are of major concern because of their neurotoxicity even at small doses. However, these compounds are degraded by roasting. Traditionally, the seeds are roasted and leaves are cooked and integrated into daily diets.
A study employing proton-NMR, GC-MS, LC-QTOF, and GNPS molecular networking to evaluate the chemical composition of sacha inchi seeds, with in silico toxicology analysis and in vitro cytotoxicity assays, revealed that the major components of these seeds are oils and sugars, with minor amounts of phytosterols and trigonelline, a pyridine alkaloid. GNPS analysis suggested the absence of saponins, instead identifying trigonelline and a few other nitrogen-containing metabolites. The study indicated a low safety risk related to saponin and alkaloid content in the sacha inchi seeds.
In silico toxicology analysis indicated that the seed sample did not exhibit toxicity. Furthermore, in vitro cytotoxicity screening demonstrated no cytotoxic effects against NIH-3T3 cells, even at 400 µg/mL. These findings collectively indicated the absence of saponins, the presence of phytosterols and trigonelline, and a low safety risk related to saponin and alkaloid content in the sacha inchi seeds.
The most frequent adverse effects during the first weeks of consuming sacha inchi oil or sunflower oil were nausea. This was noted in the context of a controlled trial, suggesting transient gastrointestinal adaptation, particularly at higher doses, is the most commonly reported adverse effect in human studies.
There is scientific evidence underlying the risk of toxicity associated with high doses of sacha inchi seed oils. The specific dose thresholds for adverse effects have not been precisely defined in the published literature reviewed here.
Antinutritional factors detected in the oil press-cake include saponins (1,050.1 ± 1.1 mg/100 g), alkaloids (2.1 ± 0.5 mg/100 g), and tannins (6.2 ± 0.9 mg/100 g). While these phytotoxins could limit their use in food applications, their potential antimicrobial activity highlights promising pharmacological opportunities.
Sacha inchi oil is rich in tocopherols (α-, γ-, and δ-tocopherol) and antioxidants, including phenolic compounds. However, oil refining reduces the levels of these compounds, making the refined oil vulnerable to atmospheric oxygen and various processing treatments. Consumers and manufacturers should therefore prioritize cold-pressed, unrefined formulations stored away from light and heat, as the high PUFA content makes SIO susceptible to oxidative rancidity.
In the pilot study using 10 ml of sacha inchi oil per day, the higher-dose subgroup was associated with an increase in insulin levels. This finding warrants further investigation, particularly for populations with insulin dysregulation, and has not been replicated in the larger randomized controlled trial.
Sacha inchi has been recognized as a novel food, and the whole plant has been designated as Generally Regarded As Safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration. Today, the plant is also cultivated for economic purposes in Southeast Asia, particularly in Thailand and Myanmar. Despite promising results from advanced studies, the huge concentration range remains an obstacle for both nutraceutical and drug evaluation. Furthermore, the targeted mechanism actions of sacha inchi with its functional constituents are still not conclusive.
Health conditions that Plukenetia volubilis may help support.
Body systems that Plukenetia volubilis may help support.
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