Psacalium peltatum (Kunth) Cass.: A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description
1.1 Accepted Name and Synonyms
Psacalium peltatum (Kunth) Cass. carries the accepted binomial name and is also recorded in the literature under several synonyms, including Cacalia peltata Kunth, Senecio peltatus DC., and Senecio peltifer Hemsl. It belongs to the tribe Senecioneae of the family Asteraceae.
Psacalium peltatum (Kunth) Cass. is an endemic medicinal plant and a member of the "matarique complex," widely distributed in the central part of Mexico. In medicinal plant markets of Mexico City, Psacalium peltatum is a common substitute for P. decompositum, because the former grows in the nearby pine forests.
1.2 Common Names
P. peltatum is also known as "matarique," and iNaturalist records additionally document the variant spellings "maturique" and "maturi" in the Spanish-language literature. The common name "matarique" primarily refers to Psacalium decompositum, though other species like Psacalium peltatum are also known by this common name.
1.3 Botanical Description and Habitat
The plant belongs to the Asteraceae family, which includes daisies and sunflowers. It is a perennial herb characterized by its yellowish root and a semi-woody stem that can grow up to 1 meter in length. Its radical leaves, growing from the stem's base, are up to 40 centimeters long and divided into sharp, grayish-green segments. The plant produces white, five-petaled flowers.
Matarique grows wild in semi-arid regions, commonly found in northern Mexico, particularly in Sonora and Chihuahua, as well as parts of Arizona and New Mexico in the United States. It thrives in pine-oak forests and rocky, humid soils, often found on mountain slopes.
1.4 Medicinal Plant Parts and Preparations
The dried roots are placed in boiling water (approximately 300 mL) for 10 minutes and left to cool at room temperature. The decoction is then filtered. A similar prepared decoction is the common form of administration in traditional practice. Preparations are typically made from the root, which is administered as decoctions, infusions, or topical applications.
Plants of the genus Psacalium (syn. Senecio), including P. peltatum and P. decompositum (family Asteraceae, tribus Senecioneae), are used in the United States, Mexico and other parts of Central America, usually in the form of aqueous decoctions, for the treatment of a variety of ailments including diabetes.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
2.1 Cultural Context and Time Period
Psacalium peltatum (H.B.K.) Cass. (Syn. Senecio peltiferus HEMSL., Asteraceae), commonly known in Mexico as "matarique," has been used for a long time in traditional medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, an important endocrine ailment.
Psacalium peltatum, commonly known as "matarique," has a long history of traditional use in Mexican and Native American herbal medicine, particularly for conditions associated with inflammation such as rheumatism, arthritis, and skin ailments.
2.2 Specific Conditions Treated Traditionally
Psacalium peltatum (H.B.K.) Cass. (Asteraceae) is used medicinally to treat diabetes, rheumatic pains, as well as gastrointestinal and kidney ailments.
The Raramuri people and peasants of the State of Chihuahua use a decoction of the roots and rhizome of this species for the treatment of rheumatic disorders, pain, hepatic and renal colic, neuralgia, ulcers and colds. This ethnobotanical documentation of the Raramuri (Tarahumara) indigenous people of the Sierra Tarahumara region of Chihuahua is also noted in the closely related species P. decompositum, which shares common names and a broadly overlapping set of traditional uses with P. peltatum.
Psacalium peltatum, also known as "matarique" or "matarique root," has been traditionally used in Mexican and Southwestern U.S. folk medicine for a variety of ailments, including as a general remedy for pain. Ethnobotanical reports document its use by indigenous peoples and traditional healers to manage pain associated with rheumatism, arthritis, and other inflammatory conditions.
The use of Matarique has a long history in Mexican traditional medicine, where it is primarily known for addressing diabetes and various gastrointestinal issues.
2.3 Traditional Preparations
The most well-documented traditional preparation is a root decoction prepared by boiling the dried roots in water. The dried roots (40 g) are placed in boiling water (300 mL) for 10 minutes and left to cool at room temperature. The decoction is then filtered and administered directly. This preparation method has been replicated in scientific studies specifically to mirror the traditional use. The plant is also commercially available in herbal markets; Psacalium peltatum has been acquired from the Sonora Herbal Market at Mexico City, with taxonomic identification made by means of comparisons among different herbarium samples of P. peltatum from the MEXU-HERBARIUM (Herbarium IMSSM-Voucher Specimen 11490).
3. Key Constituents and Chemical Composition
3.1 Sesquiterpenoids (Cacalolides / Furanoeremophilanes)
P. peltatum roots and rhizome contain cacalolides, such as maturin, maturin acetate, and maturinin, but not cacalol or cacalone. This chemotaxonomic profile distinguishes P. peltatum from the closely related P. decompositum, which contains cacalol and cacalone as majority sesquiterpenes.
Phytochemical studies have shown that the furanoeremophilane-type sesquiterpene maturin acetate (MA) (C18H16O5), systematically named (4-formyl-9-methoxy-5-methyl-naphtho[2,3-b]furan-3-yl)methyl acetate, is one of the main constituents of P. peltatum.
The compound 14-angeloyloxycacalohastine, a furanoeremophilane sesquiterpene with the molecular formula C21H24O4, was isolated from matarique, or Psacalium peltatum (Kunth). Its systematic name is (9-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-5,6-dihydronaphtho[2,3-b]furan-4-yl)methyl 2-methylbut-2-enoate, and its crystal structure has been characterized crystallographically by researchers at the Instituto de QuÃmica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Antioxidant and hypoglycemic effects have been found for cacalolides such as cacalol, cacalone, or maturine; however, their effects on inflammatory processes are still largely unclear.
3.2 Carbohydrate Fraction (Fructans and Related Compounds)
Carbohydrate-type compounds isolated from this plant have been described as being responsible for its hypoglycemic activity. A key compound identified is peltalosa: the structure and hypoglycemic activity of peltalosa, a new carbohydrate-type ulopyranose, was isolated from an aqueous extract of P. peltatum. Peltalosa has been reported to have the chemical formula C10H18O10 and is identified as 2,6-anhydro-s-ulopyranose.
Previous pharmacological and chemical assays have demonstrated that an aqueous fraction from Psacalium peltatum (AP-fraction) contains a carbohydrate-type compound with hypoglycemic activity. This aqueous fraction (the AP-fraction) was found to have a high content of fructans.
3.3 Alkaloids
Almanza-Perez and Alarcón-Aguilar et al. reported the presence of alkaloids in rhizomes and roots of P. peltatum. De Vivar et al. reported the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in all species of the genus Psacalium. The toxicological significance of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in P. peltatum has not been quantitatively characterized in the available primary literature, but the class is a notable safety consideration discussed further in Section 8.
3.4 Other Secondary Metabolites
Maturin acetate has been isolated as the most abundant compound in other Mexican plant species such as Psacalium radulifolium, Psacalium beamanii, Roldana angulifolia, and Trichilia cuneata, and other medicinal plants such as Senecio digitalifolius, Senecio lydenburgensis, and Senecio affinis. The presence of this compound across related genera provides additional chemical context for understanding the bioactive profile of P. peltatum.
4. Mechanisms of Action
4.1 Hypoglycemic and Anti-hyperglycemic Mechanisms
The precise molecular mechanisms underlying the blood glucose-lowering effects of P. peltatum extracts are not yet fully characterized, but fractions and isolated compounds provide partial mechanistic insight. Previous studies showed that Psacalium peltatum exhibits an acute hypoglycemic effect in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits and mice, and carbohydrate-type compounds isolated from this plant have been described as being responsible for this activity.
Peltalosa, an ulopyranose compound, has been obtained from the roots and rhizomes of P. peltatum, which has showed anti-hyperglycemic activity on mice with mild diabetes, although the efficacy decreased on mice models with severe diabetes.
4.2 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms
Maturin acetate reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated peritoneal macrophages.
Maturin acetate also stimulates the proliferation of murine macrophages and splenocytes, induces lysosomal enzyme activity, pinocytosis and NK cell activity, as well as increases the release of IL-2, IL-15 and IFN-γ in immunosuppressed mice, showing relevant immunostimulatory activities.
Regarding the AP-fraction fructans, the proposed mechanisms involve modulation of oxidative stress and cytokine balance: the increase in IL-10 levels may indicate an inhibition of the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, whereas the increase in IFN-γ might be indicative of a beneficial effect on the immune system.
4.3 Immunostimulatory Mechanisms
The in vitro immunostimulatory effects of maturin acetate (MA) were evaluated on the viability of murine splenocytes and macrophages, and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The effects of MA on the production of nitrous oxide, pinocytosis, and lysosomal enzyme activity were assayed in murine macrophages RAW 264.7. The effects of MA on NK cell activity were also assayed. The in vivo immunostimulatory activities of MA were evaluated on BALB/c mice immunosuppressed with cyclophosphamide.
5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
5.1 Blood Glucose Regulation / Antidiabetic Effects
Evidence level: Preclinical (animal and in vitro); no human clinical trials published.
A study by Contreras-Weber et al. (2002) investigated the anti-hyperglycemic effect of Psacalium peltatum. The plant was processed in the traditional way (water decoction) and administered intraperitoneally to normoglycemic and diabetic mice. Hexane, chloroform, methanol and water extracts were administered to fasting healthy mice. The results showed that the water decoction, methanolic extract and aqueous extracts exhibit hypoglycemic activity in the studied mice. The methanolic extract was submitted to a separation process by chromatographic column from which seven fractions were obtained. Each fraction was administered to healthy mice and hypoglycemic activity was found in fraction VII. A second chromatographic separation was performed on this fraction, to yield seven subfractions. The results of the biological trials showed that the subfractions SFII and SFIII significantly reduce blood glucose levels in healthy mice.
The hypoglycemic activities of water-ethanol extracts (WEE) prepared from Psacalium peltatum H.B.K. (Cass) were investigated in healthy and alloxan-diabetic mice. The WEE of P. peltatum significantly diminished glycemia in healthy mice at 240 minutes (19.6%). In mildly diabetic mice, the WEE of P. peltatum lowered the basal blood glucose level at 120 min (16%) and 240 min (54%) after intraperitoneal administration (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively).
The hypoglycemic activity of the decoction prepared from roots and rhizomes of P. peltatum has been validated in alloxan-diabetic animals. Notably, P. peltatum decoctions diminished fasting glycemia in mice and hyperglycemia in rabbits, but the effects were minor when compared to the closely related P. decompositum in a head-to-head comparison.
A further study by Alarcón-Aguilar et al. (2010) aimed to determine whether a hypoglycemic carbohydrate fraction (AP-fraction) from Psacalium peltatum roots has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in streptozotocin-induced diabetes mice. The AP-fraction hypoglycemic fructans from Psacalium peltatum roots showed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in mice with streptozotocin-induced diabetes.
In that study, healthy mice received either saline, the AP-fraction with a high content of fructans, or pioglitazone (a positive control) daily by gavage. After 15 days of treatment, these animals received a single intraperitoneal administration of streptozotocin, and all treatments were continued for an additional 33 days. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the AP-fraction were evaluated through the quantification of biomarkers of oxidative stress (glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA)) and inflammation (interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and IL-10). The AP-fraction reduced glycemia and the glycated hemoglobin.
The AP-fraction reduced glycemia and the glycated hemoglobin. Furthermore, animals treated with the AP-fraction had increased GSH, while MDA was decreased in the liver and the heart, without changes in the kidneys and the pancreas.
In the present investigation, 200 mg/kg of AP-fraction from Psacalium peltatum was administered. This is the only specific dosage for the AP-fraction reported in the available literature. The Psacalium peltatum hypoglycemic fructans may be valuable in preventing insulin resistance, as well as the development and progression of diabetic complications caused by chronic inflammation. These conclusions, however, remain strictly preliminary as all evidence is from animal models.
A 2021 PMC review noted that P. peltatum, from which an aqueous fraction was obtained with fructan content, has demonstrated a hypoglycemic effect and anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects on streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice.
5.2 Inflammatory Conditions and Rheumatism
Evidence level: Preliminary (in vitro and in vivo animal data only); no human clinical trials published.
Few studies have shown the potential effects of maturin acetate in the inflammatory process; maturin acetate reduces the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated peritoneal macrophages.
The AP-fraction significantly reduced TNF-α serum levels but did not modify IL-6; in addition, this fraction increased IFN-γ and IL-10 levels. The increase in IL-10 levels may indicate an inhibition of the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
The available scientific data are limited to in vitro investigations or general phytochemical screenings, which do not provide conclusive evidence of therapeutic benefit. As such, the use of Psacalium peltatum for inflammation remains rooted in tradition, with scientific evidence currently insufficient to confirm its effectiveness or safety for this purpose.
Sesquiterpenes related to those found in P. peltatum — notably cacalol and cacalone from P. decompositum — have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties in related experimental models: sesquiterpenes as cacalol and cacalone, isolated from P. decompositum, have been shown to produce clear inhibition of edema with a dose-dependent anti-inflammatory effect using in vivo models. Cacalone in a natural mixture with epi-cacalone reported the highest anti-inflammatory effect using the in vivo 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) model. However, these specific compounds are absent from P. peltatum.
5.3 Immunostimulatory and Immunomodulatory Effects
Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro and animal studies only); no human clinical trials published.
Maturin acetate (MA) is one of the main constituents in Psacalium peltatum. The cytotoxic effects of MA on tumorigenic cells were evaluated using the MTT assay. MA lacks cytotoxic activity against human cancer cells (IC50 > 200 μM).
In the absence of LPS, MA 10 μM or higher stimulated significantly (P ≤ 0.05), compared to untreated cells, the viability of murine macrophages and splenocytes.
Since P. peltatum is used as an immunostimulatory agent and for the empirical treatment of cancer in traditional medicine, researchers have investigated these specific bioactivities. Hexane extracts of P. peltatum roots did not show cytotoxicity in several carcinogenic cells, such as those of cervical (HeLa), colorectal (SW-480) and breast cancers, and leukemia. This finding suggests that hexane extracts of the root are unlikely to possess direct anti-cancer cytotoxicity, at least in these tested cell lines.
5.4 Mast Cell Degranulation and Allergic Inflammation
Evidence level: Preliminary in vitro study; no in vivo or human data.
Antioxidant and hypoglycemic effects have been found for cacalolides such as cacalol, cacalone or maturine; however, their effects on inflammatory processes are still largely unclear. The main aim of a 2018 MDPI study was to investigate the biological activities of secondary metabolites from P. decompositum and P. peltatum through two approaches: (1) chemoinformatic and toxicoinformatic analysis based on ethnopharmacologic background; and (2) the evaluation of their potential anti-inflammatory/anti-allergic effects in bone marrow-derived mast cells by IgE/antigen complexes. This investigation used computational and cell-based methods to probe whether cacalolides could modulate FcεRI-dependent degranulation in mast cells, which is relevant to allergic disease pathophysiology.
5.5 Pain
Evidence level: Ethnobotanical only; no clinical evidence.
Phytochemical analyses have identified sesquiterpene lactones and other secondary metabolites in Psacalium peltatum that may possess anti-inflammatory or analgesic activity, but these findings are preliminary and mostly based on in vitro or animal model data. The use of Psacalium peltatum for pain is primarily justified by traditional and ethnobotanical evidence rather than scientific validation. The current evidence rating is low due to the absence of rigorous human research.
6. Body Systems and Health Areas
Based on documented traditional use and available preclinical research, Psacalium peltatum is associated with the following body systems:
- Endocrine / Metabolic system: Commonly used in traditional medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Multiple animal studies have confirmed blood glucose-lowering activity of root extracts and isolated fractions in rodent models.
- Musculoskeletal system: Ethnobotanical reports document its use by indigenous peoples and traditional healers to manage pain associated with rheumatism, arthritis, and other inflammatory conditions.
- Gastrointestinal system: Psacalium peltatum (H.B.K.) Cass. (Asteraceae) is used medicinally to treat, among other ailments, gastrointestinal ailments.
- Renal / Urological system: Traditional use includes application for kidney and renal colic.
- Immune system: Maturin acetate stimulates the proliferation of murine macrophages and splenocytes, induces lysosomal enzyme activity, pinocytosis and NK cell activity, as well as increases the release of IL-2, IL-15 and IFN-γ in immunosuppressed mice, showing relevant immunostimulatory activities.
- Integumentary system: Topical application for skin ailments has been noted in some ethnobotanical accounts, though supporting scientific evidence is absent.
7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages
No standardized clinical dosages for humans have been established for Psacalium peltatum. All dosages reported in the scientific literature derive exclusively from preclinical animal studies:
- Traditional water decoction: The dried roots (40 g) are placed in boiling water (300 mL) for 10 minutes, left to cool, filtered, and administered at 4 mL/kg body weight in animal studies.
- AP-fraction (aqueous fructan fraction): The AP-fraction from Psacalium peltatum was administered at 200 mg/kg to mice in a streptozotocin-induced diabetic model by gavage, daily over a 48-day protocol.
- Water-ethanol extract (WEE): The WEE of P. peltatum was tested in healthy and alloxan-diabetic mice; significant glycemia reduction was observed at 240 minutes (19.6% in healthy mice; 54% in mildly diabetic mice at 240 min post-intraperitoneal administration).
- Maturin acetate (MA): MA at concentrations of 10 μM or higher significantly stimulated the viability of murine macrophages and splenocytes in vitro.
8. Safety, Toxicology, and Potential Interactions
8.1 Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid Content
A key safety consideration for all species in the genus Psacalium, and in the Asteraceae tribe Senecioneae broadly, is the potential presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids. De Vivar et al. reported the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in all species of the genus Psacalium. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are well-characterized hepatotoxins. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are a group of secondary metabolites occurring in a wide variety of plants. These natural toxins are produced and stored in plants to protect them from herbivores. More than 660 PAs and their respective N-oxides are known and about half of them exhibit hepatotoxic effects. Due to their widespread distribution and their genotoxic and hepatotoxic properties, PA-containing plants are among the most common poisonous plants that may affect humans, wildlife and livestock. The specific identity, quantity, and toxicological characterization of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in P. peltatum specifically have not been fully documented in the peer-reviewed sources identified.
8.2 Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of Aqueous Extract
The aqueous extract from P. peltatum is partially cytotoxic and genotoxic, and its possible effect might be on phytohaemagglutinin, the mitogen added to stimulate lymphocyte proliferation. This observation, derived from in vitro cell-based assays, indicates that the aqueous extract — the same fraction used in traditional decoctions — carries some degree of cytotoxic and genotoxic potential. This warrants consideration alongside the extract's reported bioactive properties.
8.3 Antitumor / Cytotoxicity Profile of Individual Fractions
In contrast to the finding above for the whole aqueous extract, fractions and isolated compounds have shown markedly different profiles. MA lacks cytotoxic activity against human cancer cells (IC50 > 200 μM). Similarly, hexane extracts of P. peltatum roots did not show cytotoxicity in several carcinogenic cells, such as those of cervical (HeLa), colorectal (SW-480) and breast cancers, and leukemia.
8.4 Absence of Formal Clinical Safety Data
No formal pharmacovigilance data, clinical safety studies, or human pharmacokinetic studies for P. peltatum appear in the peer-reviewed literature examined. Despite all the available literature, there is currently no information about the physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of the key cacalolide constituents to a level sufficient to make clinical predictions.
8.5 Potential for Drug Interactions
Given the demonstrated blood glucose-lowering activity of root extracts and fractions in animal models, theoretical pharmacodynamic interactions with antidiabetic medications (including insulin, sulfonylureas, and other hypoglycemic agents) are a plausible concern, though no clinical interaction studies have been conducted. No interaction data are available in the sources identified.
8.6 Absence of Approval by Regulatory Bodies
Psacalium peltatum does not appear in any government or institutional health authority monographs reviewed for this article, including those of the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements, the WHO Traditional Medicine monographs, the European Medicines Agency (EMA), or ESCOP. No pharmacopeial monograph has been identified. Its regulatory status in the United States, European Union, and other jurisdictions has not been formally established in the literature reviewed.
9. Relationship to Psacalium decompositum
P. peltatum is consistently studied alongside, and sometimes confused with, the closely related Psacalium decompositum (also known as "matarique"). The two species share common names, overlapping traditional uses, and a related but distinct chemical profile. In medicinal plant markets of Mexico City, Psacalium peltatum is a common substitute for P. decompositum, because the former grows in the nearby pine forests. P. peltatum roots and rhizome contain cacalolides such as maturin, maturin acetate, and maturinin, but not cacalol or cacalone. The absence of cacalol and cacalone — the principal hypoglycemic sesquiterpenes of P. decompositum — means that the pharmacological mechanisms operative in P. peltatum are driven primarily by its fructan/carbohydrate fraction and by maturin/maturin acetate, rather than by the furanoeremophilane sesquiterpenes that dominate the more extensively studied sister species. Researchers have cautioned that market substitution of one species for another may affect both efficacy and safety outcomes.
10. Overall Assessment of Evidence
The totality of the scientific literature on Psacalium peltatum is composed exclusively of in vitro cell studies and in vivo animal experiments, predominantly conducted in rodent models. Despite its longstanding use in traditional medicine, there is a lack of robust scientific studies or clinical trials evaluating its efficacy or safety. The most consistently replicated finding is blood glucose reduction in normal and mildly diabetic rodents using aqueous or aqueous-ethanolic root extracts. Anti-inflammatory and immunostimulatory effects of isolated maturin acetate have been demonstrated in cell-culture and mouse models. No randomized controlled trials, observational human studies, pharmacokinetic studies, or formal dose-finding studies in humans have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature. The evidence base, while suggestive of pharmacological activity, remains preliminary and cannot be extrapolated to support clinical recommendations.
References
Go back