Sclerotium

Sclerotium (Scleroglucan / Sclerotium Gum): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Nomenclature, and Natural Source

In the context of dietary supplements, cosmetic ingredients, and functional foods, the term Sclerotium most commonly refers to the exopolysaccharide product derived from the filamentous fungus Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. — a compound commercially designated scleroglucan or, under its International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI) name, Sclerotium Gum.

Sclerotium rolfsii is a filamentous fungus, initially isolated from rotten red peppers as a phytopathogen, that became the most prolific strain in the production of exopolysaccharides (EPSs). The species exists as the anamorphic (asexual) stage of the organism; its teleomorph — the sexual state — is Athelia rolfsii, and it is classified within the Kingdom Fungi, Phylum Basidiomycota, Class Agaricomycetes, Order Atheliales, and Family Atheliaceae.

It is important to distinguish between two overlapping uses of the word "sclerotium" in natural-products contexts:

• The fungal genus Sclerotium and its exopolysaccharide product: Sclerotium gum is a natural polysaccharide obtained by the fermentation of the filamentous fungus Sclerotium rolfsii. This is the primary subject of this article.
• The morphological structure called a "sclerotium": A sclerotium (plural: sclerotia) is a compact, hardened, nutrient-rich mass of fungal mycelium that serves as a dormant survival structure in many fungal species. Large subterranean sclerotia of different mushroom species are traditionally consumed by indigenous people around the world. Well-known examples include the sclerotia of Wolfiporia cocos (Fuling/Poria cocos) and Lignosus rhinocerus (Tiger Milk Mushroom). These are entirely separate organisms and products from Sclerotium rolfsii gum, and they are treated separately in the sections on traditional use below.

Key Identifiers

• INCI name: Sclerotium Gum (also listed as Sclerotium rolfsii gum)
• Common/chemical synonym: Scleroglucan
• CAS Number: 39464-87-4; EINECS/ELINCS No: 254-464-6; COSING REF No: 78705
• Producing organism: Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. (teleomorph: Athelia rolfsii)
• Molecular class: β-(1→3)(1→6)-D-glucan (a branched homopolysaccharide of glucose)

2. Chemical Composition and Molecular Structure

Scleroglucan is a neutral β(1→3) glucan with β(1→6) glucan branches every third residue. This regular branching pattern distinguishes it structurally from other fungal glucans such as lentinan (from Lentinula edodes) and schizophyllan (from Schizophyllum commune), although all belong to the broader class of (1→3)-β-D-glucan polymers.

Scleroglucan (SCGL), a β-(1→3)(1→6)-D-glucan produced by Sclerotium rolfsii, is characterised by high molecular weight (≈2–3 × 10⁶ Da) and a triple-helical conformation that confers excellent solubility, pseudoplastic flow behaviour, and remarkable thermal and pH stability.

The higher-order three-dimensional architecture of scleroglucan is central to its biological and physicochemical properties:

• In vivo, β-1,3-glucan assumes a triple-helical structure in which one β-1,3-glucan chain forms inter-strand hydrogen bonds with two other strands perpendicular to the axis of the triple helix.
• The native polymer dissolves in water as very stiff and stable triple-stranded helices, which can be dissociated to single-strand random coils by heating to 135 °C.
• The main structural features that influence the action of (1→3)-β-D-glucans as biological response modifiers appear to be the degree of branching, molecular weight, and higher-order conformation.

A hydrolyzed form also exists commercially. Hydrolyzed Sclerotium Gum carries INCI classification as a natural or hemisynthesis polymer, and its registered INCI functions include film-forming, humectant, and skin-protecting activities.

3. Production and Commercial Forms

Sclerotium gum is not extracted from plant tissue but is manufactured by microbial fermentation. Under controlled conditions of pH, temperature, aeration, and other fermentation parameters, the fermentation of Sclerotium rolfsii is carried out. The fermentation broth is sterilized after completion of the cycle to kill the fungal cells, inactivate unwanted enzymes, and separate cells from the exopolysaccharide. It is then obtained in powder form after drying and finally blended to obtain a homogenous mixture.

This biotechnology-derived beta-glucan exopolysaccharide is nonionic and hydrosoluble, and its gelling, stabilizing, and hydrating properties make it a popular ingredient for various applications. With widely used and traditional polymers being petroleum-derived and non-biodegradable, sclerotium gum can act as an eco-friendly and sustainable alternative to conventional polymers.

The ingredient is commercially available in several forms:

• Sclerotium Gum (INCI): the native high-molecular-weight powder produced by fermentation
• Hydrolyzed Sclerotium Gum (INCI): a lower-molecular-weight form achieved through hydrolysis, with different functional properties in formulations
• Scleroglucan: a natural polysaccharide produced by fungi of the genus Sclerotium, extensively studied for various commercial applications including secondary oil recovery, ceramic glazes, food, and paints, and which also shows several interesting pharmacological properties.

4. Traditional and Historical Use

The compound now known as scleroglucan — i.e., the isolated exopolysaccharide of Sclerotium rolfsii — has no documented history of traditional use as such. It is a modern biotechnology product discovered through 20th-century microbiology. Its first reported isolation was from Sclerotium glucanicum, a related species, in the context of antitumor polysaccharide research in the early 1970s.

However, the broader concept of medicinal fungal sclerotia — the compact survival structures formed by various fungal species — has a substantial and well-documented history across multiple cultures:

East Asia: Poria cocos (Fuling / Hoelen)

The fungus "Fuling" has been used in Chinese traditional medicine for more than 2,000 years, and its sclerotia have a wide range of biological activities including antitumour, immunomodulation, anti-inflammation, antioxidation, and anti-aging effects. Commonly known as Poria cocos (syn. Wolfiporia cocos), which was originally described from North America and known as "Tuckahoe," this species has been applied to "Fuling" in most publications. In China, the dried sclerotia were traditionally prepared as decoctions, powders, and teas, and were used to tonify the spleen and stomach, calm the mind, and promote urination.

Southeast Asia: Lignosus rhinocerus (Tiger Milk Mushroom)

In Malaysia, the mushroom known locally as "cendawan susu rimau" — literally "mushroom of tiger's milk" — is widely used by indigenous communities to treat diseases including breast cancer, fever, cough, asthma, food poisoning, and as a general tonic, and is the most popular medicinal mushroom used by Malaysian indigenous populations. In China, its sclerotium is an expensive folk medicine used by traditional Chinese physicians to treat liver cancer, chronic hepatitis, and gastric ulcers.

North America: Indigenous Use of Tuckahoe

In North America, the hypogeous sclerotia of a mushroom species, known as "Tuckahoe" or "Indian bread," are utilized as a traditional food by Native Americans. The first valid scientific description of this fungal sclerotia was given by Schweinitz, who named it Sclerotium cocos Schwein.

It must be emphasized that in the supplement and cosmetic ingredient literature, the label "Sclerotium" almost exclusively refers to the industrially fermented Sclerotium rolfsii exopolysaccharide. Claims connecting its use to ancient Chinese or Asian medicine are not directly supported by primary historical sources relating specifically to S. rolfsii or its gum, as opposed to the sclerotia of the entirely different organisms (Poria cocos, Lignosus rhinocerus, etc.) described above.

5. Key Constituents and Mechanisms of Action

Primary Active Constituent: β-(1→3)(1→6)-D-Glucan

The entirety of sclerotium gum's pharmacological interest resides in its polysaccharide structure as a member of the (1→3)-β-D-glucan family. β-Glucans are glucose polymers found in fungal cell walls, plants, and some bacteria. They are known for their ability to activate leukocytes, and have been of considerable interest as immune modulators promoting anti-tumorigenic and anti-microbial activities.

Immunomodulatory Mechanism: Receptor Engagement

The primary immunological mechanism of scleroglucan and related (1→3)-β-D-glucans involves recognition by pattern recognition receptors on immune cells:

• Dectin-1 (CLEC7A): Dectin-1, also known as the β-glucan receptor, is a type II transmembrane lectin belonging to the family of C-type lectin receptors (CLRs). Structurally, Dectin-1 has a single carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) that specifically recognizes polysaccharides defined as β-(1→3)/(1→6)-glucans, initially described to be present in the cell wall of certain pathogens including fungi and some bacteria. Downstream signaling elements activated upon recognition of β-glucan by Dectin-1 include SRC family kinases (SFK), SYK, and CARD9 to eventually mediate the production of reactive oxygen species, activation of NF-κB, and subsequent secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
• Complement Receptor 3 (CR3) and TLR-2: Complement receptor 3 (CR3), Dectin-1, and TLR-2 have all been implicated in the recognition of β-1,3-glucans by the innate immune system.

The downstream consequences of Dectin-1 engagement are diverse: outcomes of Dectin-1 recognition include pro-inflammatory responses such as cytokine production, reactive oxygen species generation, and phagocytosis; however, tolerant responses have also been attributed to Dectin-1, depending on the specific ligand engaged.

Structural Requirements for Immunostimulatory Activity

Research has identified that not all glucan preparations are equally immunoactive. Key structural factors include:

• The immunomodulating properties of comb-like branched (1→3)-β-D-glucans scleroglucan, schizophyllan, and lentinan depend on branching pattern, molecular weight, and higher-order structure. The effect of weight average molecular weight (M_w) and higher-order structure of scleroglucan on stimulation of human monocytes cultured in vitro to secrete tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) was specifically investigated.
• Scleroglucan samples with a linear wormlike, triple-helical structure with M_w less than 50 × 10⁴ g/mol or larger than 110 × 10⁴ g/mol stimulated monocytes more efficiently than samples with M_w in the range (67–110) × 10⁴ g/mol.
• Denaturation of the linear triple helices by NaOH, followed by neutralization, yielded blends of linear and macrocyclic topologies with concomitant irreversible reduction of the cytokine-inducing activity compared with the untreated scleroglucans. This confirms that the intact triple-helix conformation is required for immunostimulatory potency.
• Research has found that branching is not required to observe biological activity, but branching has been shown to enhance binding to the Dectin-1 receptor. In contrast, β-glucan size is thought to play a major role in biological activity, with glucans that are shorter than 10,000 Da being generally inactive in vivo.

Receptor Redundancy and Complexity

The mechanisms are not fully resolved. Studies exploring the role of the β-glucan receptor Dectin-1 in protective and non-protective immunomodulation induced by β-glucan-rich ligands found that, in models examining protection against systemic Staphylococcus aureus infection in mice and zymosan-induced multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, the β-glucan-rich compounds had marked effects in vivo that were unaltered by Dectin-1 deficiency, suggesting that this receptor has a redundant role in these murine models.

Monocyte and Cytokine Stimulation

Pre-incubation of monocytes with antibodies against cluster of differentiation antigens CD14 or CD11b reduced scleroglucan's potency to stimulate TNF-α secretion, mainly for the antibody against CD14 in the presence of serum. This in vitro evidence points to CD14 as a co-receptor involved in scleroglucan-mediated monocyte activation.

6. Areas of Investigated Use and Scientific Evidence

6.1 Immunomodulation

The strongest body of preclinical evidence for scleroglucan concerns its role as an immunomodulatory agent. Emerging preclinical and clinical evidence highlights the ability of β-glucans to modulate innate and adaptive immunity, exerting direct and adjunct antitumor effects via Dectin-1, toll-like receptors, and complement receptor 3. Although well known as nutraceuticals, their integration into advanced cancer biotherapeutics, such as monoclonal antibody regimens, cytokine modulation, and nanoparticle delivery, remains in early translation.

Evidence strength: The immunostimulatory properties of scleroglucan have been demonstrated in vitro (in human monocyte cultures) and in various animal models. Direct human clinical evidence specifically for sclerotium gum (as opposed to other β-glucan types, such as oat/barley-derived glucans) is lacking.

6.2 Antitumor Activity (Preclinical)

Scleroglucan was among the first fungal polysaccharides investigated for antitumor activity. Research from the early 1970s identified antitumor polysaccharides from Sclerotium glucanicum. The mechanism is believed to operate through immune activation rather than direct cytotoxicity:

• β-Glucans are known for their biological activities such as enhancing antitumor, antibacterial, and antiviral immunity as well as wound healing.
• In vivo, β-1,3-glucan assumes a triple-helical structure in which the immune receptor recognition of the triple-helical conformation is important for immune signaling. Glucans with a single helix conformation showed a lower ability to suppress tumor growth than glucans with a triple helix conformation.

Evidence strength: Antitumor activity for scleroglucan is based on preclinical (primarily animal and in vitro) data. No published human clinical trials specifically evaluating scleroglucan from S. rolfsii as a standalone antitumor intervention in human subjects have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature. Broader β-glucan clinical trials (notably using lentinan and schizophyllan as adjuncts to chemotherapy in Japan) support the mechanistic plausibility but cannot be directly extrapolated to scleroglucan.

6.3 Antiviral Activity (Preclinical)

Laboratory studies have investigated natural and semisynthetic polysaccharides including scleroglucan for antiviral potential. Early work published in the Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (Mastromarino et al., 1997) examined the antiviral activity of natural and semisynthetic polysaccharides, including scleroglucan, on early steps of rubella virus infection. Evidence strength: Antiviral claims for scleroglucan rest entirely on in vitro data. No human clinical evidence is available.

6.4 Gut Health and Prebiotic Potential

Preliminary in vitro and animal studies suggest that scleroglucan may possess prebiotic effects, supporting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria, and could modulate immune responses due to its β-glucan content. Some studies have also explored its antioxidant and cholesterol-lowering potential, although these findings are largely preclinical.

Comprehensive clinical research on the direct health effects of Sclerotium gum in humans remains limited. Current evidence supports its safety as a food additive, and its functional benefits in food systems are well-documented.

In a food science study, addition of scleroglucan slowed down lactose hydrolysis and acidification in yoghurt, but increased the counts of Streptococcus thermophilus (7.7 log CFU·g⁻¹) compared to a control (5.8 log CFU·g⁻¹). This suggests a possible substrate effect on bacterial populations, but the clinical relevance for human gut health has not been established.

Evidence strength: Prebiotic and gut-health effects of scleroglucan are preliminary, based on in vitro and food matrix studies. No controlled human clinical trials investigating scleroglucan's prebiotic effects in human subjects have been identified.

6.5 Skin Health and Transepidermal Water Loss (Topical Application)

In contrast to its internal supplement applications, the topical use of sclerotium gum in cosmetic formulations is well-characterized from a physicochemical standpoint:

• In skincare formulations, it acts as an efficient thickener and emulsion stabilizer, improving texture while maintaining formula integrity. It forms a flexible, hydrating film over the skin that enhances moisture retention and imparts a smooth feel. Its high thermal stability and resistance to hydrolysis make it particularly suitable for advanced gel and serum textures that must remain stable across diverse conditions.
• This flexible gum has high thermal stability and can aid in improving the skin's moisture barrier, decreasing trans-epidermal water loss, and keeping the skin hydrated.

Evidence strength: Moisturizing and barrier-enhancing effects at the skin surface are supported by the physicochemical properties of the polymer (film-forming, water-binding). Controlled clinical studies demonstrating statistically significant outcomes in human subjects are not well-represented in the peer-reviewed literature. The cosmetic functions are accepted based on in vitro and formulators' evidence.

6.6 Pharmaceutical Drug Delivery

A separate but substantial body of research examines scleroglucan as a pharmaceutical excipient rather than as a therapeutic agent per se:

• Reviews focus on the use of scleroglucan, and some of its derivatives, in the field of pharmaceutics and in particular for the formulation of modified-release dosage forms. Reported investigations refer mainly to: natural scleroglucan suitable for the preparation of sustained-release tablets and ocular formulations; oxidized and crosslinked scleroglucan used as a matrix for dosage forms sensitive to environmental conditions; and co-crosslinked scleroglucan/gellan whose delivery rate can be affected by calcium ions.
• Microorganism-derived polysaccharides including scleroglucan, gellan gum, and xanthan gum have all been intensively researched for utilization in drug delivery.

Evidence strength: The use of scleroglucan as a pharmaceutical matrix former for controlled-release oral and ophthalmic dosage forms is supported by laboratory and pre-formulation studies. It is not itself an approved drug.

6.7 Dysphagia Management

Scleroglucan is being considered as an alternative rod-like, shear-thinning high-molecular-weight β-glucan-based polysaccharide to xanthan gum for the management of patients with oropharyngeal dysphagia. Its rheological properties — pseudoplastic flow and thermal stability — make it a candidate for thickening beverages consumed by patients who cannot safely swallow thin liquids. This remains an area of preliminary investigation.

7. Body Systems Associated With Sclerotium / Scleroglucan

• Immune System: Primary area of pharmacological interest, via Dectin-1, CR3, TLR-2, and downstream NF-κB / cytokine cascades. Evidence is preclinical.
• Gastrointestinal Tract / Gut Microbiome: Potential prebiotic substrate; preliminary evidence for selective promotion of beneficial bacterial populations. Evidence is largely in vitro.
• Integumentary System (Skin): Topical application as moisturizer, barrier-enhancing agent, and film-former; well-characterized physicochemical evidence.
• Cardiovascular / Metabolic: Cholesterol-lowering potential has been explored in the broader β-glucan class (most robustly for oat and barley β-glucans with established FDA and EFSA health claims), but evidence specifically attributable to scleroglucan/sclerotium gum is preliminary and largely preclinical.

8. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

Dosage data for sclerotium gum / scleroglucan varies significantly by application context:

Cosmetic and Topical Use

The Cosmetics Ingredient Review (CIR) Board considers Sclerotium gum to be safe as used in cosmetics, where its typical concentration ranges from 0.25–2%, depending on the desired product aesthetics and needs of the ingredients it's blended with.

Food / Functional Food Use

One study evaluated the effects of different concentrations (0.25%, 0.5%, and 1.0% w/w) of highly purified (90%) β-glucan (scleroglucan) produced by Sclerotium rolfsii on the physicochemical, rheological, microbiological, and sensory properties of full-fat yoghurt.

Preclinical In Vitro Immunology

In the monocyte stimulation study referenced above, scleroglucan samples of varying molecular weight (M_w less than 50 × 10⁴ g/mol or larger than 110 × 10⁴ g/mol) were used to determine dose-dependent cytokine stimulation, but concentrations were specific to the in vitro model and are not translatable to human dosing.

Hydrolyzed Form in Cosmetics

Hydrolyzed sclerotium gum was reported in industry surveys to be used in leave-on formulations at up to 1%.

No established human oral dietary supplement dosage for sclerotium gum/scleroglucan has been defined in the peer-reviewed clinical literature. Dosages cited in commercially available supplements cannot be verified against clinical study outcomes.

9. Safety Considerations

Regulatory Safety Assessment (Cosmetic Use)

The Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel assessed the safety of 34 microbial polysaccharide gums for use in cosmetics, finding that these ingredients are safe in cosmetic formulations in the present practices of use and concentration.

Parenterally administered polysaccharides appear to be biotransformed to a limited but variable extent in animal and human studies. However, these very large compounds appear not to be significantly absorbed through the skin and would have negligible bioavailability. Coupled with a lack of significant toxicity associated with other routes of exposure, the CIR Expert Panel determined that systemic effects were unlikely to result from topical application of cosmetics containing these ingredients.

Toxicology Profile

The Expert Panel noted that testing with a number of microbial polysaccharide gums demonstrated they did not produce systemic toxicity in oral studies; they are not reproductive or developmental toxicants, are not genotoxic, and are not considered irritants or sensitizers.

The Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) board has deemed sclerotium gum safe for cosmetic use at typical concentrations (0.25–2%). It is non-ionic, non-comedogenic (rated 0), and well-tolerated by all skin types, including sensitive and acne-prone skin.

Exaggerated Inflammatory Response

Research on β-glucans as a class identifies a relevant safety consideration at high doses or in particulate form: exaggerated inflammatory responses can be induced by β-glucans in certain circumstances, especially if these carbohydrates are administered in particulate form. A relevant example is the ability of a high dose of the β-glucan-rich particle zymosan to induce multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) in mice, characterized by uncontrolled systemic inflammation. This applies to pharmacological administration rather than typical cosmetic or dietary supplement use.

Skin Sensitization Potential

Results showed that most microbial polysaccharide polymers were non-sensitizing, consistent with available in vivo data. Animal and human tests indicate that polysaccharide gums as a class can be mild skin irritants, but are non-sensitizers.

Food Additive Status

Current evidence supports the safety of sclerotium gum as a food additive, and its functional benefits in food systems are well-documented. No specific regulatory approval for scleroglucan as a dietary supplement ingredient (distinct from its food additive or cosmetic use) has been identified in the published literature.

Known Interactions

No peer-reviewed studies specifically documenting drug interactions for orally ingested sclerotium gum in humans have been identified in the literature searched. The theoretical concern that any potent immunomodulatory agent could interact with immunosuppressive medications is acknowledged in the broader β-glucan pharmacology literature, but this has not been specifically demonstrated for scleroglucan at dietary supplement doses.

10. Current Evidence Landscape and Research Gaps

Comprehensive clinical research on the direct health effects of Sclerotium gum in humans remains limited. As interest in natural, functional ingredients grows, Sclerotium continues to be explored for its nutritional contributions, with ongoing research aimed at substantiating its potential health-promoting properties. More human studies are needed to firmly establish its efficacy, but its positive role in improving food texture and possible prebiotic effects are encouraging.

The strongest scientific evidence base for β-glucan health benefits in humans exists for cereal-derived (oat and barley) β-glucans, for which regulatory bodies including the FDA and EFSA have approved qualified health claims related to cholesterol lowering and glycemic response. Cereal-derived β-glucans, particularly from oats and barley, exert protective effects by altering the gut microbiome composition, increasing short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, and reducing systemic inflammation. These data cannot be directly extrapolated to the fungal-derived scleroglucan from Sclerotium rolfsii.

In pharmaceutical research, scleroglucan has been extensively studied for various commercial applications and also shows several interesting pharmacological properties, but this research focuses on its use as a vehicle for drug delivery rather than as a therapeutically active ingredient.

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