IngredientsSpatholobus suberectus Dunn (family Leguminosae/Fabaceae) is a perennial woody vine, indigenous to tropical and subtropical forests in China and other Southeast Asian countries. The officially recognized pharmaceutical name for the drug derived from this plant is Spatholobi Caulis (SC), designating the dried vine stem. Spatholobi caulis is known as Ji Xue Teng in China, and has long been used as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat anaemia, menstrual abnormalities, rheumatoid arthritis, purpura, and related conditions. The plant also carries the synonym Millettia dielsiana in older literature; Millettia dielsiana is the dry cane of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn, which is often used as a traditional herb medicine in China because of its many biological activities.
The medicinal plant has different common names depending on the country: "Ji-xue-teng" in China, "Gye-hyeol-deung" in Korea, and "Ke huyet dang" in Vietnam. These names can be literally translated as "chicken's blood vine" because the plant decoction has a red color, just like chicken's blood. SC is called "Ji Xue Teng" (which means "chicken blood vines") because its red juice resembles blood that flows out when the vine is injured.
Spatholobus suberectus Dunn is a climbing vine plant that is distributed in Guangdong, Fujian, Yunnan, Guangxi provinces and other neighboring provinces of China and Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar. SC is derived from the dried vine stem of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn, which belongs to the family Leguminosae and is mainly distributed throughout the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Fujian Province of China.
The crude drug is prepared by collecting the lianoid stem of S. suberectus, removing branches and leaves, cutting it into slices, and drying it under the sun. The shape of the crude drug is elliptical (0.3–1 cm of thickness) with a greyish-brown cork, reddish-brown texture, and a number of branch vessels. Quality control identification in official pharmacopoeias relies on physical appearance and thin-layer chromatography (TLC). In the Hong Kong Chinese Materia Medica Standards, it is required to perform HPLC fingerprinting of the plant methanolic extract. There are 6 chemical markers required in the fingerprinting chromatogram and the standard is formononetin.
The most traditional form of preparation is the water decoction of sliced dried stem. It is most commonly used as a food additive in southern Asian regions for wine, tea, and soup. According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, SC is usually used in combination with other herbal medicines. It is often used for curing anaemia, irregular menstruation and migraine and is a component of many classic Chinese preparations, such as Zhengtian pill, Naoxintong capsule and Fukeqianjin tablet. In clinical practice, the crude extract from SSD is used in a number of patented Chinese medicines, and demand for the crude resource is increasing rapidly. Modern commercial forms include encapsulated standardized extracts, granules, and oral liquid preparations derived from the dried stem, as well as topical decoctions used in some clinical applications.
As a traditional Chinese medicinal material, the vine stem of S. suberectus Dunn was first recorded in "Bencao Beiyao" during the Qing dynasty. Its use was first recorded in Bencao Beiyao, which was written by Ang Wang during the Qing dynasty (1694 A.D.). This Materia Medica book indicated that SC has the functions of activating blood and invigorating tendons, and has been used for curing anaemia, irregular menstruation, rheumatoid arthritis, and purpura. The vine stem of SSD has been widely employed in Chinese Medicine to treat hematopoiesis, anemia, rheumatism, and menoxenia in Chinese society for nearly 1000 years.
For hundreds of years, it has demonstrated the effects of activating and tonifying blood, regulating menstruation and relieving pain, relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; its flavors are described as bitter and sweet and its property is warm, and is attributable to the liver and kidney meridians according to the theory of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).
According to the five-elements theory of traditional Chinese medicine, red is associated with heart and blood conditions. Therefore, S. suberectus decoction is traditionally used to activate and nourish blood in blood disorders such as menstrual irregularities, dysmenorrhea, and amenorrhea. In addition, S. suberectus vine stem is also used for the treatment of bone-and-joint-related diseases, such as rheumatism, osteoarthritis, and backache.
In clinical practice, it is always used for treating rheumatic arthralgia, irregular menstruation, and paralysis in many Chinese formulas such as Jinkui Shenqi pills and Fukeqianjin formula (a classical prescription).
Spatholobus suberectus vine stem is an important medicinal material in Chinese, Vietnamese, and Korean traditional medicines. Its decoction has long been used to treat blood disorders, such as anemia and menstrual irregularity, as well as rheumatoid diseases. The plant's recognition across multiple Asian pharmacopoeias underscores the breadth of its traditional acceptance in the region. The Vietnamese Pharmacopoeia, among other national standards, includes it as a regulated herbal material.
Due to its high medicinal value, people use it as a medicinal food to make soup, to maintain their bodies and replenish their physical strength in daily life. S. suberectus has long been used as a nourishing food additive (wine, soup and tea) in China.
To date, phytochemical studies have revealed that approximately 243 chemical ingredients have been isolated from SC and identified, including flavonoids, glycosides, and phenolic acids. Previous phytochemical investigations characterized 88 compounds from S. suberectus, which mainly belonged to the phenolic class, especially of the flavonoid type. A 2022 systematic review in the Journal of Natural Products series reported that the main chemical constituents of S. suberectus stems are isoflavonoids with different substitution types. In addition, simple phenolics and other phenolic classes (i.e., coumarin, lignan, quinone, and procyanidin) were also reported.
SSD comprises distinguished polyphenolic compounds, including flavonoids, chalcone, dihydroflavone, pterocarpan, and phenolic acid. Structures characterized by spectroscopic techniques have consisted of one flavone, three isoflavones, five flavanones, two flavanonols, and one chalcone. Specific compounds identified by isolation studies include naringenin, liquiritigenin, eriodictyol, butin, dihydroquercetin, and dihydrokaempferol among the flavanone/flavanonol classes, along with several isoflavones. Formononetin, genistein, and isoflavones are among the constituents that have been studied for potential roles in cancer prevention, and catechins are studied for their promotion of hematopoietic cell proliferation.
Spatholobus suberectus is an excellent functional and medicinal food source of dietary procyanidins, which have numerous health benefits. Ten procyanidin fractions with different polymerization degrees have been prepared from SS. For the first time, the chemical characteristics of the procyanidins in Spatholobus suberectus were clearly described, including the mean degree of polymerization (mDP), the elementary units, the mass distribution of fractions with different mDP values, and the types of linkages. The SS procyanidins have unique chemical profiles and are beneficial sources of antioxidants and potential inhibitors of LDH-A and breast cancer. Procyanidins with mDP values of 2–6 were likely to be the substances responsible for its bioactivity.
SSD has excellent antioxidant properties due to its phenolic acids, flavonoids, lignans, tannins, and other polyphenols. Principally, catechin, epicatechin, formononetin, gallic acid, syringic acid, and vanillic acid have been described to account for the antioxidant properties of SSD. Lignans are also part of the chemical profile; a study of chemical constituents isolated from the stem identified lignan-type compounds including prestegane B, medioresinol, and buteaspermanol, along with various flavanone glycosides and simple phenolics such as protocatechuic acid.
Five new compounds named spasuberol A, homovanillyl-4-oxo-nonanoate, spasuberol C, spasuberoside A, and spasuberoside B, together with ten known compounds, have been isolated from the dried vine stems of S. suberectus, reflecting ongoing phytochemical discovery from this plant.
Modern pharmacological and clinical studies have shown that the biologically active components are mainly flavonoids, which have the effect of promoting the recovery of human hematopoietic function. Catechins specifically have been found to promote the proliferation of hematopoietic cells. This mechanistic finding is directly consistent with the plant's long-standing use in TCM for blood deficiency and post-treatment recovery.
The anti-inflammatory activity of isolated constituents was evaluated by reducing nitric oxide overproduction in RAW264.7 macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide. The anti-inflammatory activity and the possible mechanism of the compounds were studied preliminarily. Compounds 1 and 8–10 showed strong inhibitory activity with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 5.69, 16.34, 16.87, and 6.78 μM, respectively, exhibiting higher activity than the positive control drug l-NIL.
Treatment with ethanolic extract of S. suberectus (EeSs) significantly enhanced glucose uptake, mediated through the enhanced expression of GLUT4 in skeletal muscle via stimulation of AKT and AMPK pathways in C2C12 cells. Moreover, EeSs showed potential inhibitory action on α-glucosidase activity and significantly lowered postprandial blood glucose levels in STZ-induced diabetic mice, associated with increased expression of GLUT4 and AKT and/or AMPK-mediated signaling cascade in skeletal muscle. Furthermore, administration of EeSs significantly boosted antioxidant enzyme expression and also mitigated the gluconeogenesis enzyme expression (PEPCK and G-6-Pase) in liver tissue of STZ-induced diabetic mice.
SSDs exert their anti-tumor effects by modulating PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/Raf/MAPK pathways, preventing breast cancer development. The reported data strongly indicate the potent effects of the plant extract against cancer cells, specifically breast cancer, via different mechanisms. Furthermore, it is notable that all chemical components, especially catechins and isoflavonoids, contributed to synergistic effects, rather than a few single responsible compounds.
Water extract of S. suberectus (WESS) effectively inhibited osteoclast differentiation from its precursors. The inhibitory effect on osteoclast differentiation was due to the suppression of osteoclastogenic transcription factors, c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells cytoplasmic 1 expression, via preventing receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand-induced early signaling pathways and decreasing c-Fos protein level in osteoclast precursors. Furthermore, WESS suppressed bone resorption activity of osteoclasts by disrupting actin ring structure.
The percolation extract of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn (SSP) has been described as a broad-spectrum viral entry inhibitor against SARS-CoV-1/2 and other enveloped viruses. The viral inhibitory activities of SSP were evaluated using pseudotyped SARS-CoV-1 and 2, HIV-1, and H5N1. SSP effectively inhibited viral entry with EC50 values ranging from 3.6 to 5.1 μg/ml. SSP blocked both SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein and the host ACE2 receptor. These findings are preclinical only.
Butin was the most efficacious of the isolated constituents and exhibited concentration-dependent effects. Western blot analysis revealed that expression of tyrosinase and tyrosinase-related proteins 1 and 2 (TRP1 and TRP2) was decreased in butin-treated human epidermal melanocyte (HEMn) cells. Additionally, quantitative real-time PCR analysis disclosed that expression of mRNAs for tyrosinase, TRP1 and TRP2 was suppressed by butin.
Traditional rationale: Due to its notable effects of promoting blood circulation and tonifying blood, regulating menstruation and relieving pain, this phytomedicine has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for hundreds of years.
Clinical/laboratory evidence: Clinical and laboratory trials have demonstrated that SS extracts could improve hematopoiesis and enhance immunity in cancer patients after they complete chemotherapy or radiotherapy. SC could be applied to the treatment of leukopenia, aplastic anemia, and endometriosis according to clinical reports. The traditional efficacies of SC are attributed to the biological functions of its chemical compounds, especially flavonoids.
Evidence strength: Clinical reports and laboratory trials supporting hematopoietic effects exist, but the available human evidence mostly derives from clinical observations embedded in Chinese-language literature and multi-herb prescriptions rather than rigorously designed, independently replicated randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The mechanistic data from in vitro studies (catechin-mediated promotion of hematopoietic cell proliferation) provide biological plausibility.
In vitro evidence: There have been a considerable number of studies of S. suberectus and its bioactive compounds on anticancer properties. The 2022 PMC review by Nguyen-Ngoc et al. documented that the plant extract showed potent effects against cancer cells, particularly breast cancer (including triple-negative breast cancer). S. suberectus was found to be anti-TNBC both in vitro and in vivo, after measuring cell viability, cell cycle, morphological changes, LDH release, ROS generation, DNA fragmentation assay, mitochondrial membrane potential assay, and glutathione-related pyroptotic signaling.
Mechanistic pathways identified in preclinical work: SSDs exert their anti-tumor effects by modulating PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/Raf/MAPK pathways, preventing breast cancer development.
Human/clinical evidence and its limitations: Clinical and laboratory trials have demonstrated that SS extracts could improve hematopoiesis and enhance the immunity of cancer patients after chemotherapy or radiotherapy. However, the 2022 PMC review by Hu et al. concluded that further clinical trials are needed to explore its restorative benefits. At the current state of the literature, robust, prospective, placebo-controlled human trials specifically testing SC as an anticancer agent are absent from the peer-reviewed record. Evidence is predominantly preclinical (cell line and animal model studies).
Laboratory evidence: The dried vine stems of Spatholobus suberectus are commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine for treating gynecological and cardiovascular diseases. In vitro studies using LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells have demonstrated inhibition of nitric oxide production by specific isolated isoflavones and flavanone compounds. Diverse pharmacological actions such as anti-inflammatory, anti-virus, hemagglutination, and lipid regulation were reported.
Clinical context: In clinic, for treating gynecological, cardio-cerebrovascular and joint diseases, SSVS is combined with other phytomedicines to form "drug-pairs" or prescriptions, some of which have been recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 Edition). One prospective randomized clinical trial (PMC10126634) assessed a topical multi-herb decoction called Shouzu Ning Decoction, which included 30 g of Spatholobus suberectus as one of six components, for the treatment of grade 2 hand-foot skin reaction in cancer patients. Spatholobus suberectus Dunn extracts were reported to possess various medicinal activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-platelet, anti-rheumatic, and antioxidant activity, supporting its inclusion in such formulas. As with other areas, data isolating SC's contribution in multi-herb clinical formulas are limited.
In vitro and animal evidence: The aim of one published study was to investigate the effects of S. suberectus on glucose disposal in skeletal muscle cells and to explore its in vivo antidiabetic potential. The ethanolic extract enhanced glucose uptake via GLUT4/AKT/AMPK pathways in cell culture, inhibited α-glucosidase, and lowered postprandial glucose in STZ-induced diabetic mice. A separate study (PMC6163801) investigated whether S. suberectus could ameliorate diabetic nephropathy in db/db mice via suppression of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), finding that S. suberectus showed effective anti-AGEs activity.
Evidence strength: Evidence is currently limited to in vitro and animal models. Modern pharmacological and clinical research has shown that S. suberectus has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiphotoaging, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties — though "clinical research" in this context encompasses both laboratory-level and clinical observational data, and dedicated human RCTs for diabetes are not yet available in the peer-reviewed literature reviewed here.
In vitro and cell-based evidence: A 2013 study published in BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies (and indexed in PMC) investigated water extract of the stem of S. suberectus (WESS) on osteoclast biology. This study demonstrated that WESS inhibits osteoclast differentiation and function. These results suggest that WESS has a potential for treating pathological bone diseases caused by excessive bone resorption. Pharmacological studies of SSVS have reported that this phytomedicine exhibits antiosteoclastogenic effects, among other activities.
Evidence strength: Preclinical only; no clinical trials in humans for osteoporosis or related bone diseases have been identified.
Preclinical evidence: The percolation extract of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn (SSP) is a broad-spectrum viral entry inhibitor against SARS-CoV-1/2 and other enveloped viruses. Viral inhibitory activities were evaluated using pseudotyped SARS-CoV-1 and 2, HIV-1ADA and HXB2, and H5N1. SSP effectively inhibited viral entry with EC50 values ranging from 3.6 to 5.1 μg/ml. Pre-treatment of pseudovirus or target cells with SSP showed consistent inhibitory activities with respective EC50 values of 2.3 or 2.1 μg/ml.
Evidence strength: Entirely preclinical (pseudovirus and cell-based assays); no human antiviral clinical trials have been identified.
Pharmacological studies showed the beneficial effects of extracts of the plant on the cardiovascular tract, which is ethnopharmacologically relevant to the plant's use in traditional medicine. Pharmacological studies showed the beneficial effects of extracts of the plant on the cardiovascular tract, which is ethnopharmacologically relevant to the plant's use in traditional medicine. Antiplatelet properties have been reported in the literature and are cited as part of the pharmacological rationale for its clinical inclusion in cardiovascular prescriptions. The evidence base is primarily preclinical.
Pharmacological studies of SSVS have reported that this phytomedicine exhibits nervous system-regulating, antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antidiabetic, antiosteoclastogenic, antidepressant and hepatoprotective effects in laboratory models. These categories represent areas of pharmacological interest identified in preclinical research; clinical human evidence for neuroprotective uses has not been independently verified in available peer-reviewed sources.
Constituents of the 95% ethanol extracts of the dried vine stems of S. suberectus were isolated and examined for their skin-whitening capacity. A bio-guided phytochemical investigation, involving use of the mushroom tyrosinase inhibitory system, of active fractions of the extracts resulted in the isolation of 12 constituents. This area of research remains at the in vitro / cell-based stage.
Dosages in traditional and clinical literature are typically expressed in terms of the dried crude drug used in decoctions or as components of multi-herb formulas. The following are reported in published sources:
No standardized single-agent human clinical dose for Spatholobus suberectus as a standalone supplement has been identified in the peer-reviewed sources consulted. Doses in the sources above are exclusively as components of multi-herb TCM decoctions. Standardized extract doses used in commercial supplements are not addressed in the peer-reviewed literature reviewed here.
One study reported no observed oral acute toxicity and toxicological symptoms at 5000 mg/kg in mice, though the chemical details of the plant extract were not mentioned in the study. After 14 days of continuous oral treatment (equivalent to 579 g/kg crude drug daily), no abnormal phenomena were observed, such as unusual crying, convulsions, ataxia or difficult breathing in the animal model assessed.
In vivo studies indicated that there was no abnormal toxicity and behavior in long-term SSP treatment in the antiviral preclinical research model.
Research investigating the toxicological effects of SC is relatively limited. In regard to the absorption-distribution-metabolism-elimination-toxicity (ADMET) of SSVS, few studies have been carried out, and few articles have been published. Further systematic studies focusing on pharmacokinetics, toxicology and quality control are needed to ensure the effective and safe application of SC.
S. suberectus has numerous pharmacological properties, including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antioxidant, antiplatelet, antiviral, stimulating blood circulation, and neuroprotection. The antiplatelet and blood circulation-activating properties documented in pharmacological studies are directly relevant to safety considerations, as they indicate potential for additive or synergistic effects when used alongside anticoagulant or antiplatelet pharmaceutical agents (e.g., warfarin, aspirin, clopidogrel). This is a mechanistically-grounded concern; however, formal pharmacokinetic drug-interaction studies in humans have not been identified in the sources reviewed.
Formononetin and genistein — both isoflavones present in S. suberectus — are recognized phytoestrogens in the broader pharmacological literature. Their presence is relevant to individuals with hormone-sensitive conditions, though dedicated clinical safety studies evaluating this specifically for SC have not been identified in the sources reviewed.
S. suberectus has always faced the problem of insufficient supply. S. suberectus has a long growth cycle, low fruiting rate, and poor natural reproductive capacity. Numerous fraudulent products resembling authentic S. suberectus have been documented in the commercial market, presenting a quality-assurance concern for consumers and clinicians. Molecular identification using DNA barcoding (rbcL gene) and HPLC fingerprinting with formononetin as a marker compound are methods cited in official standards for authentication.
The herb's documented blood-activating and uterine-stimulating properties in TCM texts, combined with its traditional association with dysmenorrhea and amenorrhea treatment, are consistent with caution during pregnancy. This is noted as a traditional contraindication in TCM usage, though controlled clinical data are not available in the peer-reviewed sources consulted.
Spatholobi caulis is an important ingredient of traditional Chinese medicine recorded in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, with demonstrated blood-activating and stasis-dissolving efficacy. In clinic, for treating gynecological, cardio-cerebrovascular and joint diseases, SSVS is combined with other phytomedicines to form "drug-pairs" or prescriptions, some of which have been recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 Edition). The Vietnamese Pharmacopoeia also includes the plant as a regulated drug material. In the Hong Kong Chinese Materia Medica Standards, HPLC fingerprinting of the plant methanolic extract is required. There are 6 chemical markers required in the fingerprinting chromatogram, and the standard marker is formononetin.
The overall evidentiary landscape for Spatholobus suberectus can be characterized as follows:
With a long history of traditional uses, a variety of bioactive phytochemicals and a wide range of definite pharmacological activities, SSVS is believed to have great potential in clinical applications and further research, development and exploitation. The precise action mechanisms, rational quality control and quality markers, and explicit ADMET routes should be highlighted in future research, which might provide effective help to safely, effectively and sustainably use this herbal medicine.
Health conditions that Spantholobus may help support.
Body systems that Spantholobus may help support.
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