Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench
1. Identity, Nomenclature, and Botanical Description
1.1 Accepted Name and Synonymy
Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench is the currently accepted botanical name for this species, with major synonyms including Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. and Centratherum anthelminticum (L.) Gamble. It belongs to the family Asteraceae (formerly placed under Compositae).
The name V. anthelmintica (L.) Willd. is a synonym of Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench, with other synonyms including Ascaricida anthelminthica (L.). The plant has been utilized since ancient times for its nutritional and medicinal value. According to the World Checklist of Vascular Plants, facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the name Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench is reported as the accepted name in the genus Baccharoides, family Asteraceae.
The name was formally published by Conrad Moench in his work Methodus Plantas Horti Botanici et Agri Marburgensis, page 578, in 1794. Additional synonyms recognized at Kew's Plants of the World Online include Vernonia stenolepis Oliv. and Dolosanthus silvaticus Klatt.
1.2 Common Names
The plant is commonly known as Kalijiri, Somaraaji, Black cumin, or Purple Fleabane and is an annual, erect, robust pubescent herb. In India, the common name Somaraaji is also equated with Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. The common name Black cumin is also applied to Nigella sativa L., which often leads to confusion. In Traditional Uyghur Medicine (TUM) the plant is widely known by the common name Kaliziri.
1.3 Morphology, Distribution, and Natural Habitat
Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. is an annual herb native to Africa, Asia temperate (China), and Asia tropical regions including Sri Lanka, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, India, and Pakistan, as indicated by the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).
The plant (known as Kinka in some traditions) is a robust, branched, annual plant growing 60–100 cm tall. The plant is often gathered from the wild and used medicinally, especially in Asia. It is sometimes cultivated for medicinal purposes in countries such as India and China. It has been grown experimentally in the USA as a possible source of epoxy fatty acids (oil).
1.4 Dosage Forms and Common Preparations
In traditional Uyghur medicine (TUM), seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica were used as a herbal medicine under the common name "Kaliziri" for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, leukoderma (vitiligo), skin disease, fever, worm infection, and kidney trouble.
In recent years with the development of traditional medicine in China, V. anthelmintica has been widely used in medicinal formulas for the treatment of vitiligo, such as "Kursi babuqi" and "Injection of Kaliziri."
A Vernonia anthelmintica injection product obtained from the seeds is described in the Uyghur Medicine volume of the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (SFDA code Z20063652).
Documented preparations include crude seed powder administered orally, aqueous extracts of ground seeds, methanolic or ethanolic extracts, volatile seed oil, and injectable formulations for clinical dermatology use in China.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
2.1 Overview
Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench is a popular medicinal plant with a long history of use in several traditional remedies to cure a variety of diseases including its effect on the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, metabolism, kidneys, gynecology, skin diseases, and general health.
Baccharoides anthelmintica (also known as Vernonia anthelmintica), a medicinal plant from the Asteraceae family, is widely recognized in Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and traditional Chinese medicine. It has been traditionally utilized to address inflammatory issues, gastrointestinal disorders, skin ailments, and reproductive health problems.
2.2 Indian Subcontinent: Ayurveda and Unani
B. anthelmintica is widely used in traditional medicines for various ailments. Seeds are stomachic, tonic, diuretic, antiperiodic, and alterative, and are used to expel round worms. The seeds are also found used in a variety of skin diseases.
In local medicine, the plant has been used to cure a wide spectrum of disorders including asthma, sores, inflammatory swellings, skin ailments, kidney troubles, itching of the eyes, and hiccough.
The small, extremely bitter seeds are powerfully anthelmintic, diuretic, stomachic, and tonic.
Traditional uses include treatment of skin diseases including ulcer, eczema, and psoriasis. The bruised seeds ground up into a paste with lime juice are applied externally as a treatment to kill lice. The plant is also described as astringent and used to cure intestinal colic, ulcers, cough, and flatulence.
2.3 Traditional Uyghur Medicine and Central Asia
The seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. have been used to treat skin pigmentation diseases in Central Asia for over a century. In TUM, Vernonia anthelmintica is classified as a "Hot and Dry" herb, traditionally used to treat vitiligo, which is often attributed to an imbalance of humors, particularly the accumulation of "abnormal viscous mucus" beneath the skin, which obstructs nutrient circulation and melanocytes.
Seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. have been used in folk medicine for the treatment of leukoderma in Xinjiang, China, for more than 300 years. The fruits extract (AVE) is one of the most popular Uyghur medicines used for leukoderma and was initially recorded in 'Yao Yong Zong Ku' approximately 300 years ago.
2.4 Traditional Chinese Medicine
In traditional Chinese medicine, the seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. have been widely used for treatment of cough, skin diseases, diarrhea, fever, schistosomiasis, amoebic dysentery, and gastrointestinal problems, especially in the treatment of vitiligo for thousands of years in China.
2.5 Africa
In Africa (e.g., Ethiopia, Nigeria), the plant has been used for parasitic infections, fever, skin diseases, stomach ache, and sometimes as an ingredient in remedies for schistosomiasis or malaria. B. anthelmintica has traditionally been used in ethnomedicine as a general body tonic and for the treatment of malaria and other ailments.
2.6 Traditional Use in Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
The seeds of this plant are particularly significant for their ethnopharmacological applications, notably in treating helminth infections in children and fever convulsions in Ceylon.
3. Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Active Compounds
3.1 Overall Chemical Profile
Phytochemical studies of V. anthelmintica have revealed the presence of 193 chemical constituents, including phenolic acids (11), chalcones (6), flavonoids (33), terpenes (42), fatty acids (33), steroids (48), and miscellaneous (20) compounds.
A more comprehensive review published in the journal Chemistry & Biodiversity (2024) reported an even greater count: the pharmacological action of B. anthelmintica is due to various secondary metabolites including alkaloids, terpenoids, lignans, steroids, and other phytoconstituents. Across the plant, 225 phytochemicals have been obtained from different parts, where the steroids and derivatives (48), terpenes and sesquiterpenes (46), flavonoids and derivatives (41), fatty acids and derivatives (40), phenolic acids (12), triterpenes (11), chalcones (6), diterpenes (1), and miscellaneous (20) have been reported.
Crude extracts and isolated compounds have exhibited various pharmacological activities, and approximately 45 chemical constituents have been found to be biologically active.
3.2 Steroids and Terpenoids
Steroids form the most abundant chemical class in B. anthelmintica. Phytochemical studies have confirmed that V. anthelmintica contains fatty acids, steroids, flavonoids, sesquiterpene lactones, carbohydrates, and terpenes. Among the most pharmacologically studied terpenoids and sesquiterpene lactones are vernodalin, vernodalol, vernonilide A, and vernomelitensin.
Vernodalidimers –F, –G, –H, vernonilide -A, -D, -E, –F, cynaropicrin, and vernodalol have been evaluated for cytotoxicity against human colon cancer (HCT-15), lung carcinoma (A-549), prostate cancer (PC-3), and cervical cancer (HeLa) cell lines. Vernonilide A strongly inhibited cancer cell lines with IC50 values of 5, 6, 6, and 8 μM, respectively, while cynaropicrin strongly inhibited HCT-15 (IC50: 1 μM) and PC-3 (IC50: 1 μM) cell lines.
In a separate study, vernonilide A, vernomelitensin, and vernodalin exhibited higher potency (IC50 ranging from 0.1–0.7 μM) against A549, HeLa, and breast (MDA-MB-231) cancer cell lines than the standard drug 5-fluorouracil (IC50 ranging from 3–6 μM).
Molecular docking and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) techniques suggest that vernodalin is a potentially important active compound in seed extracts.
3.3 Flavonoids
Seven flavonoids — isorhamnetin, isocarthamidin, kaempferide, fisetin, 7,8,3′,4′-tetrahydroxyflavone, 6,8,3′,5′-tetrahydroxyflavanone, and liquiritigenin — and three chalcone derivatives — 5,7,8,3′,4′-pentahydroxychalcone (butein), and isoliquiritigenin — isolated from seeds have exhibited in vitro anti-vitiligo activity.
The extract of Vernonia anthelmintica effectively enhances melanogenesis responses in B16F10 cells. Among its compounds, butin, caffeic acid, and luteolin have been identified as having activity in promoting melanogenesis in vivo and in vitro.
The plant also produces rhamnetin, an O-methylated flavonol with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.
3.4 Polyphenolic Acids: Cynarine (1,5-Dicaffeoylquinic Acid)
1,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid (1,5-diCQA) is a natural polyphenolic compound widely distributed in plants and extracted from Kaliziri seeds. Evaluation of the effect of 1,5-diCQA on melanin synthesis in B16 cells showed that 1,5-diCQA treatment stimulated an increase of intracellular melanin level and tyrosinase (TYR) activity without cytotoxicity.
Cynarine (1,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid; 1,5-diCQA) isolated from Vernonia anthelmintica was reported to increase intracellular melanin level and tyrosinase activity without cytotoxicity.
3.5 Fatty Acids and Seed Oil: Vernolic Acid
The epoxy fatty acid components isolated from the seed oil of V. anthelmintica, Indian ironweed, were trivernolin, 1,3-divernolin, and vernolic acid. By inactivation of the hydrolytic enzyme system present in the seed, oil containing more than 50% trivernolin may be obtained. The seed contains 20 to 26% of an oil rich in epoxyoleic (vernolic) acid combined as glycerides amounting to 70 to 75%.
In addition, a phytohormone, abscisic acid, has also been identified from leaves and seeds.
3.6 Minor Alkaloids and Other Constituents
Phytochemical evaluation of an ethanolic extract of V. anthelmintica seeds revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenes, and polyphenols. The breadth of chemical diversity across all plant parts supports the diverse traditional use claims documented across multiple traditional medicine systems.
4. Pharmacological Activities and Mechanisms of Action
4.1 Anti-Vitiligo and Melanogenesis-Promoting Activity
Evidence strength: Preclinical (in vitro and animal). Some preliminary clinical observations in Chinese literature; no large-scale randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in humans.
The seeds of V. anthelmintica have historically been used for treating skin diseases, including vitiligo and skin lightening in Traditional Chinese Medicine and Traditional Uyghur Medicine. The traditional claim of a skin-lightening effect of V. anthelmintica has been verified using an artificial tyrosinase system, cell models, and human volunteers.
Multi-omics studies have shown that the tyrosinase and MAPK pathways are important in seed extract treatment for vitiligo. Confirmatory experiments indicated that seed extracts promote melanogenesis by upregulating MITF-induced tyrosinase expression via the P38/MAPK-MAPKAPK2 signaling axis in melanocytes.
Oral administration of the seed extract (CAM-Y7) progressively darkened the dorsal skin and hair of C57BL/6 mice and guinea pigs. Both Lillie staining and hematoxylin-eosin staining further demonstrated that CAM-Y7 induced melanogenesis in the epidermis and hair follicles of the animals.
Three ingredients — butin, caffeic acid, and luteolin — also have the activity of promoting melanogenesis in vivo and in vitro. These compounds can reduce the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by hydrogen peroxide and the inflammatory response induced by sublethal concentrations of copper sulfate in zebrafish larvae.
A flavone isolated from V. anthelmintica was found to stimulate melanogenesis (at doses ≥ 90 μg/ml) by increasing tyrosinase and protein expression of tyrosine-related protein (TRP1).
In clinical practice in China, B. anthelmintica-based preparations have been incorporated into combination therapies for vitiligo. In recent years, V. anthelmintica has been widely used in medicinal formulas for the treatment of vitiligo, such as "Kursi babuqi" and "Injection of Kaliziri." Small-scale clinical observations reported in Chinese-language dermatology journals (cited in the research literature) have described repigmentation outcomes when these preparations were combined with narrow-band UVB phototherapy, but no large-scale randomized controlled trials are available in the peer-reviewed international literature.
4.2 Anthelmintic (Antiparasitic) Activity
Evidence strength: In vitro and veterinary in vivo (sheep). No human RCTs.
A study describes comparative in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic activities of Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. (Compositae) seeds versus levamisole. In vitro studies revealed higher anthelmintic effects of the crude methanol extract (CME) compared with the crude aqueous extract (CAE) of V. anthelmintica seeds on live Haemonchus contortus, as evidenced by mortality.
For in vivo studies, seeds of V. anthelmintica were administered as crude powder (CP), crude aqueous extract (CAE), and crude methanol extract (CME) to sheep naturally infected with mixed species of gastrointestinal nematodes. In vivo, maximum reduction of 73.9% in fecal egg counts per gram (EPG) was recorded in sheep treated with V. anthelmintica CAE at 3 g/kg body weight on day 5 post-treatment, followed by crude powder at 3 g/kg (55.6%) on day 3 post-treatment. However, CME did not exhibit anthelmintic activity in vivo.
Traditionally, seeds are administered orally at doses of 2–5 g to combat parasitic infections, including intestinal worms and malaria.
The seed's antifilarial and macrofilaricidal activities further underscore their potential against parasitic diseases.
4.3 Antimicrobial Activity
Evidence strength: In vitro only. No human clinical data available.
The medicinal plant has been reported to possess a variety of pharmacological activities including antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, diuretic, and larvicidal activities.
In vitro antibacterial testing was conducted against organisms including Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, and Salmonella typhimurium using agar disc diffusion and agar well diffusion methods. The ethanol/methanol extracts were more active than aqueous extracts for all the plants studied. The most susceptible bacterium was K. pneumoniae, while the most resistant bacteria were S. typhimurium and E. coli.
4.4 Antidiabetic and Antihyperlipidemic Activity
Evidence strength: Preclinical animal studies only. No human clinical data available.
An ethanolic extract prepared from the seeds of Vernonia anthelmintica has been evaluated for its antihyperglycemic activity in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. A published study by Fatima et al. (2010) in Food and Chemical Toxicology evaluated the antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic activity of the ethyl acetate:isopropanol (1:1) fraction of Vernonia anthelmintica seeds in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. An in vivo evaluation of antihyperlipidemic, antihyperglycemic, and hepatoprotective effects of V. anthelmintica seeds has also been published in the Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences (2018). All such studies are preclinical, and no human clinical trials have been conducted on these metabolic endpoints.
4.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
Evidence strength: Preclinical (in vitro and animal models). No human clinical data available.
Anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activities of the ethanolic extract of seeds of V. anthelmintica (EVA) have been evaluated in different experimental paradigms. The seeds were extracted by Soxhlet method using ethanol (99.9%) and the effect of EVA was evaluated for acute inflammation in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema and xylene-induced ear edema in mice, and for chronic inflammation in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritis in rats.
4.6 Anticancer (Antiproliferative) Activity
Evidence strength: In vitro cell line studies only. No human clinical data available.
A study from the University of Malaya showed that the chloroform fraction of Centratherum anthelminticum (synonym) seeds inhibited growth of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. The fraction induced apoptosis in MCF-7 cells as marked by cell size shrinkage, deformed cytoskeletal structure, and DNA fragmentation. Bioassay-guided fractionation led to identification of vernodalin as the cytotoxic agent.
Vernonilide A, vernomelitensin, and vernodalin exhibited higher potency against A549, HeLa, and MDA-MB-231 cancer cell lines (IC50 ranging from 0.1–0.7 μM) than the standard drug 5-fluorouracil (IC50 ranging from 3–6 μM) in in vitro assays. These results remain at the cell-culture stage; no clinical translation data are available.
4.7 Antioxidant Activity
Evidence strength: In vitro studies. Limited animal data.
V. anthelmintica has anthelmintic, anti-diabetic, diuretic, and anti-asthmatic properties, and also produces rhamnetin, an O-methylated flavonol with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.
High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) methods have been used to screen the in vitro antioxidant activity of V. anthelmintica.
4.8 Larvicidal Activity
Evidence strength: In vitro laboratory studies. No human or field clinical data.
A published study from PMC (NCBI) evaluated larvicidal activity of V. anthelmintica seed extracts in multiple solvents against malaria (Anopheles stephensi) and dengue (Aedes aegypti) vectors. Ethanol, chloroform, and methanol extracts demonstrated notable larvicidal activity against late III/early IV instar larvae of both mosquito species, with the methanol extract against A. aegypti yielding an LC50 of approximately 3.4 ppm and an LC90 of approximately 12.9 ppm.
4.9 Antiplasmodial (Antimalarial) Activity
Evidence strength: In vitro and in silico studies. No human clinical data.
Seeds of Baccharoides anthelmintica L. have traditionally been used as a general body tonic and as an antimalarial. Medicinal plants including B. anthelmintica seeds offer a rich source of potential antimalarial compounds. Recent research using in vitro and in silico profiling has examined antiplasmodial metabolites from the seeds, though these remain preliminary findings not yet translated to clinical studies.
4.10 Hepatoprotective and Neuroprotective Activity
Evidence strength: Preclinical animal studies only. No human clinical data.
Crude extracts and isolated compounds have also been reported to exhibit neuroprotective and hepatoprotective activities in preclinical models. These effects remain at the preclinical stage with no verified human data.
5. Body Systems and Health Areas
Vernonia anthelmintica (Purple Fleabane) has a long history of traditional use for the management of several disorders related to skin, central nervous system, kidney, gynecology, gastrointestinal system, metabolism, and general health.
The specific body systems with documented preclinical or traditional evidence are:
- Integumentary system (skin): Anti-vitiligo / melanogenesis-promoting; antipsoriatic; treatment of eczema, ulcers, lice infestation.
- Gastrointestinal system: Anthelmintic / antiparasitic (worms, amoeba); stomachic; treatment of intestinal colic, flatulence, diarrhea.
- Metabolic / endocrine: Antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic (preclinical animal data only).
- Immune / inflammatory: Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, immunomodulatory.
- Renal: Diuretic; traditional use in kidney troubles.
- Respiratory: Used traditionally for asthma and cough.
- Reproductive / gynecological: Documented in traditional use contexts.
- Hepatic: Hepatoprotective (preclinical).
- Neurological: Neuroprotective (preclinical) and use in central nervous system-related conditions in traditional systems.
- Oncological: Antiproliferative/anticancer (in vitro only).
6. Dosage Forms and Doses Reported in Research
The following dosages have been specifically stated in source documents:
- Traditional oral dosing for parasitic infections (including intestinal worms and malaria): seeds administered orally at 2–5 g.
- Veterinary in vivo dosing (sheep, gastrointestinal nematodes): maximum reduction in fecal egg count was recorded with crude aqueous extract at 3 g/kg body weight and crude seed powder at 3 g/kg body weight.
- In vitro melanogenesis stimulation: A flavone fraction isolated from V. anthelmintica stimulated melanogenesis at doses of ≥ 90 μg/ml in cell culture.
- Acute toxicity test (rodent oral): No signs of toxicity and mortality were observed on oral administration of the ethanolic seed extract in mice up to a dose of 5000 mg/kg.
No standardized human clinical dosage has been established in the peer-reviewed international literature. The Chinese Pharmacopoeia includes an injectable preparation (SFDA code Z20063652) for vitiligo treatment, but specific dosing for this product is contained within that pharmacopoeial monograph and was not retrieved in accessible peer-reviewed sources.
7. Safety, Toxicology, and Interactions
7.1 Acute Toxicity
In an acute toxicity test evaluating the ethanolic extract of Vernonia anthelmintica seeds, no signs of toxicity and mortality were observed on oral administration in mice up to a dose of 5000 mg/kg.
Acute toxicity assessment of seed extracts showed that the LD50 is greater than 5000 mg/kg body weight.
7.2 Cytotoxicity Signals
A brine shrimp lethality (BSL) test conducted by Jamil et al. (2016) indicated that ethanol and hexane extracts of seed showed positive cytotoxicity, with respective LC50 values of 104 and 216 μg/ml. The BSL test is a rapid screen for general cytotoxicity, not a clinical safety determination, but these findings indicate the presence of bioactive compounds capable of causing cell death at relevant concentrations.
Despite the encouraging results demonstrated by preclinical studies and traditional use as a nutraceutical agent, clinical trials of C. anthelminticum (synonym) extracts or derivatives are absent.
7.3 Toxicology Reporting Gaps
There are only three toxicity reports and 37 patents available on V. anthelmintica.
More study is required to determine the pharmacokinetics, mechanism of action, long-term toxicology testing, safe dosage, and possible interactions with other herbs/drugs.
Further studies are needed to explore the exact mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, chronic toxicological studies, safe dose consumption, and possible interactions with other herbs.
7.4 Traditional Safety Context
The drug used traditionally in prescribed doses may be considered safe, according to the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR, 2010).
7.5 Nomenclature-Based Confusion Risk
The plant is commonly known as Kalijiri, Somaraaji, Black cumin, or Purple Fleabane. In India, the common name Somaraaji is also equated with Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik., and Black cumin with Nigella sativa L., which often leads to confusion. This nomenclatural ambiguity is a documented safety-relevant concern, as products labeled with shared common names may contain different species with distinct pharmacological profiles and safety characteristics.
8. Commercial and Industrial Significance
The seed oil of B. anthelmintica contains more than 50% trivernolin when the hydrolytic enzyme system is inactivated. The seed contains 20–26% of an oil rich in epoxyoleic (vernolic) acid combined as glycerides amounting to 70–75%. This epoxide-rich oil has significant potential for industrial polymer applications.
The plant can be exploited as a plant-based renewable resource for the production of polymers, lubricants, polymer additives, etc., which can substitute petroleum-based polymers via an ecofriendly approach.
The plant has been grown experimentally in the USA as a possible source of epoxy fatty acids (oil).
9. Current State of Evidence and Research Gaps
B. anthelmintica stands out as a valuable natural resource for the development of innovative anthelmintic and multi-target therapeutic agents. Its diverse phytochemical profile provides a scientific foundation for traditional claims; however, additional in vivo studies, clinical trials, and safety assessments are necessary for sustainable pharmacological and industrial use.
Phytochemical studies have identified 193 chemical constituents, among which steroids form the most abundant class, followed by terpenes. Crude extracts and isolated compounds have exhibited various pharmacological activities such as anti-vitiligo, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antipsoriatic, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, analgesic, antipyretic, antioxidant, antiparasitic, antimicrobial, antiproliferative, immunomodulatory, and have also been reported to help in managing pulmonary fibrosis and promoting the synthesis of estrogen.
The overwhelming majority of pharmacological evidence for B. anthelmintica derives from in vitro cell culture studies and preclinical animal experiments. The reviewed pharmacological activities are attributable to the presence of secondary metabolites in the plant, and the plant may be a good source for developing a lead molecule in new drug discovery and development. However, more study is required to determine the pharmacokinetics, mechanism of action, long-term toxicology testing, safe dosage, and possible interactions with other herbs/drugs.
The sole domain in which preliminary clinical-level evidence exists is vitiligo treatment, and this is largely confined to Chinese-language observational reports, combination treatments involving narrow-band UVB, and regulatory authorization of specific formulations within China's pharmacopoeial framework. No large-scale, double-blind, placebo-controlled RCTs evaluating human outcomes have been published in the international peer-reviewed literature for any indication.
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