Bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata L.): A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Common Names, and Natural Source
1.1 Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Menyanthes is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the family Menyanthaceae, containing the single species Menyanthes trifoliata. It is known in English by the common names bogbean, marsh trefoil, and buckbean. Other common names include beckbean, march trefoil, marsh clover, water shamrock, bog myrtle, Horblaðka (Icelandic), bukkeblad (Danish), trébol de agua (Spanish), raate (Finnish), trÚfle des marais (French), and Bitterklee (German).
The genus name "Menyanthes" originated with the Greek herbalist Theophrastus. The word elements are "mene" in Greek meaning "moon" or "month," and "anthos," meaning "a flower." The English common name "bogbean" is a late 18th century modification of "buckbean," the 16th century name translated by Henry Lyte (1578) from the Flemish "Bocksboonen" in the herbal of Rembert Dodoens (1554).
An emergent aquatic or semi-aquatic glabrous perennial, Menyanthes trifoliata used to be considered a member of the Gentian family, but it has now been transferred to the Menyanthaceae, a small family of five genera and 40 species, all of which are aquatic. The North American form is often referred to as M. trifoliata var. minor Michx.
1.2 Botanical Description
M. trifoliata has a horizontal rhizome with alternate, trifoliate leaves. The inflorescence is an erect raceme of white flowers. The buds are rose-pink in color, and the flowers when fully open look like "white stars," with petals fringed with white whiskers. It is a perennial plant that can grow up to 15 to 30 cm in height above water. The roots are thick and creeping, and can be both attached to the ground or free-floating in water.
1.3 Geographical Distribution and Habitat
M. trifoliata belongs to the circumpolar boreo-temperate phytogeographical element. The main area of distribution lies in the northern boreal region, between 40°N and the Arctic Circle. The southern limit of the range lies between central Portugal and Spain, southern France, Corsica, northern Italy, Greece, the Caucasus, into temperate Siberia and on to Japan. It has also been recorded in northern Morocco. In North America, the southern limit of the distribution runs from California in the west to Maryland in the east. It grows north of the Arctic Circle in western Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Siberia, and Alaska.
It is a significant member of numerous marsh, fen, and bog plant communities on the shallow margins of lakes, pools, and ditches, where, depending on depth, it occasionally forms either single-species stands around the edge of open water, or floating mats in deeper water further offshore.
1.4 Part Used and Pharmacopoeial Status
All parts of the plant are medically active, but the leaves are the part most commonly used. Bogbean leaf (European Pharmacopoeia No. 1605, Menyanthidis trifoliatae folium) consists of dried, entire or fragmented leaves of Menyanthes trifoliata L., with a very bitter and persistent taste.
Menyanthes trifoliata L., folium was regarded as a typical bitter agent recorded by many European national pharmacopoeias as officinal. Herba Trifolii aquatici s. fibrini derived from the species Menyanthes trifoliata was included in the first Polish national pharmacopeia (Pharmacopoeia Regni Poloniae, 1817). Later, only the leaf was in use and was present in the Farmakopea Polska through multiple editions up to the modern era.
1.5 Common Forms and Preparations
The primary product form is air-dried leaf material; common products include dried leaves used as a bittering and flavoring ingredient in fermented beverages. Leaves have been employed as a bitterness and aroma additive in traditional beer and other fermented drinks, functioning as a hops-like adjunct; product forms include leaf chips, powders, and dried leaf bundles.
The leaves are best harvested in late spring or early summer and dried before use; the fresh plant causes vomiting. Bogbean remains widely available as dried herb and in several bitters or bitter-herbal tea blends.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
2.1 European Folk Medicine and Early Herbalism
Bogbean contains a small quantity of volatile oil and a bitter glucoside called menyanthin that makes it very unpalatable, and it is possibly this feature that has made it one of the most prized herbs available to folk use and herbal medicine (Allen & Hatfield 2006).
M. trifoliata has been used in herbal folk medicine as an astringent tonic and for a variety of ailments including digestive problems, rheumatism, constipation, arthritis, scurvy, asthma, persistent coughs, pulmonary tuberculosis, fevers, jaundice, and kidney trouble. A decoction of the root has also been used to relieve pain of stomach ulcers, and the leaves were used as a poultice for boils and skin troubles.
In the BiaĆowieĆŒa Forest region of northeastern Poland, drying the green foliage of bogbean to make a light, mildly bitter tea for digestive complaints is an old, well-documented practice (Ćuczaj 2012). In Scotland and across the United Kingdom, dried leaves or the whole aerial herb are similarly infused as a bitter tea and sometimes taken as a weak decoction for dyspepsia, flatulence, and loss of appetite.
Hagers Handbuch, in the monograph for Menyanthes (1938), mentioned Folia Trifolii fibrini being known in Germany as Bitterklee, bogbean (buckbean) leaves in Britain, and Feuilles de menyanthe (Feuilles de trĂšfle d'eau) in France.
The leaves, being bitter, have been used in the past in northern England as a substitute for hops in beer-making, hence the local name "Bog Hop."
2.2 Scandinavian and Northern European Use
M. trifoliata is used in Swedish traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases of the kidney, including glomerulonephritis. In traditional and folk medicine, its leaves are used to treat loss of appetite and dyspeptic complaints, to treat colds, fevers, rheumatism, liver ailments, worms, and skin disorders, as an astringent to stop bleeding, and as a remedy against scurvy and other diseases. It is also used as an ingredient in cholagogues, geriatric medicines, and anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic formulas.
Plants have been used in traditional medicine since the settlement of Iceland more than 1000 years ago. Seventy of the 440 vascular plants of the Icelandic flora are described or listed as medicinal plants. Leaves from Menyanthes trifoliata have been used in folk medicine to ameliorate inflammation and to treat or cure rheumatism, rheumatoid arthritis, and specifically muscular rheumatism associated with general asthenia.
2.3 Chinese Traditional Use
In Chinese herbal tradition, bogbean (ri xin cao) is used as both a mild infusion and a short decoction of the dried leaves and flowering tops to "clear heat" and promote stomach function, with preparations recorded in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (1977).
2.4 Traditional Preparations
This strongly bitter herb has been utilized for a long time as a folk medicine. An herbal tea made from the leaves has been used traditionally for irregular menstruation, to strengthen appetite, increase the secretion of digestive fluids, indigestion, and enhance nutrient absorption.
In traditional and folk medicine, its leaves are used to treat lack of appetite, scurvy, fevers, and skin disorders. The dried leaf was the officinal part in European pharmacy, prepared as an infusion or weak decoction, while the root or rhizome was decocted separately in some traditions for renal and rheumatic complaints.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
3.1 Iridoid Glycosides (Bitter Principles)
Comparison of the methanolic extracts from leaves, stems, and rhizomes of M. trifoliata by TLC showed that the main compounds are dihydrofoliamenthin, menthiafolin, and loganin, whereas foliamenthin was lacking. The monoterpene carboxylic acid of dihydrofoliamenthin was determined to be a derivative of nerol, and the configuration of carbon 7 of the secoiridoid skeleton was shown to be beta by spectroscopic evidence.
The activity of bogbean preparations is attributed to its well-studied bitter secoiridoid glycosides â loganic acid and swertiamarin â together with flavonoids such as vitexin and isovitexin. Menyanthes trifoliata contains a bitter, glucosidal principle, first isolated in 1861 by Ludwig and Kromayer, and called menyanthin.
Bogbean is one of the medicinal plants containing iridoids, plant chemicals that play a central role in herbalism as they are often the basis of what is known as the bitter principle. Due to its high iridoid content, M. trifoliata appears as an interesting model plant for studying the iridoid biosynthesis and its regulation under stress conditions.
3.2 Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids
Many reports indicate that M. trifoliata is a source of phenolic compounds such as coumarins, flavonols, and iridoids. Studies have shown the presence of various phenolic compounds, with the content of ellagic acid (299â518 ÎŒg/g dry weight), chlorogenic acid (129â258 ÎŒg/g dry weight), and rutin (82â256 ÎŒg/g dry weight) varying according to the plant part and growth conditions.
HPLC analysis demonstrated the presence of various polyphenolic compounds, including sinapinic acid, ferulic acid, syringic acid, and vanillic acid. The plant also contains a small amount of volatile oil and the flavonglycosides hyperoside and rutin.
The contents of physiologically active compounds (iridoids, polyphenols, ascorbic acid) increased slightly during the plant-formation period. The contents of iridoids and ascorbic acid were higher in marsh trefoil samples growing in an environmentally pristine area.
3.3 Triterpenes
Betulinic acid, a pentacyclic triterpene, was found at its highest concentrations in the roots of plants derived from in vitro cultures. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of this plant compound is also well documented in the literature.
A new lupane triterpenoid, 23-O-trans-feruloylcylicodiscic acid, as well as four known analogues, was isolated from the EtOAc fraction of Menyanthes trifoliata. Compounds 1, 2, and 4 exhibited certain anti-NO production activities.
M. trifoliata (Menyanthaceae) is found throughout the northern hemisphere. It is a marsh plant that grows about thirty centimeters high and offers a range of pharmacological effects including anti-inflammatory or immunomodulating properties. It is also a rich source of betulinic acid and triterpene saponins.
3.4 Other Constituents
Studies have examined the biological properties of its metabolites, and their results indicate that M. trifoliata is a source of phenolics and flavonols, some of which â such as phenolic acids, scopoletin, rutin, and loganin â may have potential medical applications.
4. Mechanisms of Action
4.1 Bitterness Receptor Stimulation and Digestive Effects
The activity of bogbean preparations is attributed to its bitter secoiridoid glycosides and flavonoids. These compounds irritate gustatory receptors in the mouth and upper gut, stimulating salivary and gastric secretions that historically underpin appetite and digestion support.
Bogbean contains bitter chemicals that can increase the flow of saliva and stomach juices. This might help stimulate the appetite or relieve indigestion.
4.2 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms
Earlier studies have shown that a leaf decoction of M. trifoliata increases glomerular filtration rate after renal reperfusion ischemia. This activity was suggested to be PAF-inhibitory, since the extract also inhibited PAF-induced exocytosis in vitro on human neutrophils (ICâ
â = 0.16 mg/ml).
Further studies revealed that the extract inhibited both fMLP-induced exocytosis (ICâ
â = 0.16 mg/ml) and elastase activity (ICâ
â = 0.16 mg/ml). According to these results it is likely that the activity shown in the PAF-test is at least partly due to an inhibition of elastase.
Aqueous methanolic extracts derived from the aerial parts and roots of in vitro grown plants demonstrated protective antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). These extracts influenced the expression of antioxidant genes (HO-1, NQO1, NRF2, KEAP1, and GCLC) and inflammation-related genes (IL-1α, IL-1ÎČ, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-Îł) in cells stimulated with HâOâ or LPS, respectively.
4.3 Immunomodulatory Mechanisms
An aqueous extract from Menyanthes trifoliata induces a suppressive phenotype of dendritic cells (DCs) that has a reduced capacity to induce Th1 and Th17 stimulation of allogeneic CD4+ T cells.
5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
5.1 Digestive Disorders, Appetite, and Dyspepsia
Traditional and regulatory classification: Under the EMA/HMPC European Union herbal monograph on digestive-use combinations, Menyanthes trifoliata L., folium is classified under traditional use for this indication.
Clinical evidence: No published data exist on medicinal products containing only a preparation of bogbean leaf from clinical studies. Non-clinical information on the safety of Menyanthes trifoliata L., folium preparations is scarce, and there are almost no data on toxicity. The available data do not raise safety concerns. Therefore, only the use as a traditional herbal medicinal product is recommended by the EMA.
Evidence strength: The evidence for bogbean's use in digestive complaints is classified by the EMA as traditional use only, based on documented use of at least 30 years (including 15 years within the EU), and not on the basis of controlled clinical trials. No human randomized controlled trials have been published specifically on bogbean leaf preparations for dyspepsia or appetite loss.
5.2 Rheumatism and Anti-inflammatory Use
Preclinical (animal and in vitro) evidence: A study further characterizing the anti-inflammatory properties of a rhizome decoction found that the extract inhibited carrageenan-induced rat paw edema (IDâ
â â 1.7 g/kg, oral) and ethyl phenylpropiolate-induced rat ear edema (32% inhibition at 2.0 g/kg, oral) in a dose-dependent manner.
Leaves from Menyanthes trifoliata have been used in folk medicine to ameliorate inflammation and to treat or cure rheumatism, rheumatoid arthritis, and specifically muscular rheumatism associated with general asthenia.
In vitro immunological evidence: Allogeneic CD4+ T cells co-cultured with dendritic cells matured in the presence of aqueous extracts from Menyanthes trifoliata secreted less IFN-Îł and/or IL-17 than allogeneic CD4+ T cells co-cultured with dendritic cells matured without extracts. This in vitro finding from a 2011 study (Journal of Ethnopharmacology) suggests a potential mechanism relevant to autoimmune/inflammatory diseases, but it has not been tested in human clinical trials.
Evidence strength: For rheumatism and arthritis, the evidence is limited to traditional use records, animal pharmacology, and in vitro cell studies. No controlled human clinical trials have been conducted specifically on bogbean for these indications. The evidence is preliminary and preclinical.
5.3 Renal / Kidney Inflammation
M. trifoliata is used in Swedish traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases of the kidney, including glomerulonephritis. Earlier studies showed that a leaf decoction of M. trifoliata increases glomerular filtration rate after renal reperfusion ischemia, a PAF-inhibitory activity also demonstrated through inhibition of PAF-induced exocytosis in vitro on human neutrophils.
Evidence strength: Animal and in vitro studies only. No human clinical data are available. Evidence is preliminary.
5.4 Antioxidant and DNA-Protective Effects
A 2019 study published in Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity (PMC6816005) provided the first report demonstrating the protective antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of aqueous methanolic extracts derived from the aerial parts and roots of in vitro grown plants on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Results showed that the MtRV and MtAPV extracts of M. trifoliata plants did not present any cytotoxic effect on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in the tested concentrations (0â5 mg/mL) after 24-hour incubation.
Evidence strength: Entirely in vitro and preclinical; no human trials on antioxidant endpoints.
5.5 Antimicrobial Activity
M. trifoliata extracts were found to moderately affect the growth of certain bacterial and fungal pathogens, with the strongest antibacterial effect found against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus faecalis.
Evidence strength: In vitro laboratory data only; no clinical antimicrobial trials.
5.6 Anticancer / Cytotoxic Potential
A study (published in Cytotechnology, 2019) examined the induction of apoptosis in grade IV glioma cells after treatment with extracts from aerial parts and roots of M. trifoliata plants derived from in vitro culture and from soil. Root extracts of M. trifoliata plants were found to exhibit cytotoxic effects against grade IV glioma cells, but not normal human astrocytes.
The growth inhibition of human grade IV glioma cells mediated by the root extract appears to be associated with apoptosis and G2/M phase cell cycle arrest, and altered expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic genes (Bax, Bcl-2, Cas-3 and TP53) and proteins, as well as decreased mitochondrial membrane potential. The results indicate that M. trifoliata gives promising results as an anti-cancer agent for human glioblastoma cell lines; however, further research is necessary in view of its therapeutic use.
A higher amount of the pentacyclic triterpene betulinic acid was found in root extracts. Betulinic acid is a compound with documented cytotoxic properties studied in other contexts.
Evidence strength: Exclusively in vitro cell-line studies. No animal studies or human clinical data exist for any anticancer endpoint. Results cannot be translated to clinical use.
6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association
Based on the compiled traditional records and preclinical research, bogbean has been historically associated with the following body systems:
- Gastrointestinal system: The plant is attributed with digestive, stomachic, carminative, cathartic, and emmenagogue properties, and is closely related to the gentians, which are famous bitter herbs used as a digestive and general body tonic.
- Musculoskeletal / inflammatory system: Historically, buckbean has been used in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory and digestive properties, and was often employed to treat conditions such as gout, rheumatism, and digestive issues.
- Renal / urinary system: Traditional Swedish medicine used it for inflammatory kidney disease; preclinical studies support PAF-inhibitory and glomerular filtration rate effects (see Section 5.3).
- Skin: In traditional and folk medicine, its leaves are used to treat lack of appetite, scurvy, fevers, and skin disorders.
- Immune system: In vitro studies demonstrate modulation of dendritic cell function and suppression of Th1/Th17 responses (see Section 5.2).
- Endovascular / cellular redox: In vitro studies documented antioxidant gene expression modulation in endothelial cells (see Section 5.4).
7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Sources
The European Union herbal monograph on Menyanthes trifoliata L., folium specifies the herbal preparation as a herbal tea infusion used between meals.
Sources citing the EMA (2014) state: do not exceed 6â9 g of dried herb per day as tea equivalents, avoid during pregnancy and while breastfeeding, and stop if heartburn or irritation occurs.
For an infusion, just-boiled water is poured over the plant material, covered, and steeped for 8â10 minutes; for a decoction, it is simmered for 8â10 minutes, then strained and cooled. Many sources indicate starting with 100 ml twice daily after meals.
As a tincture, 1 part dried bogbean leaf to 5 parts 40% ethanol by weight, macerated for 2â3 weeks with daily shaking, can be filtered and stored; typical doses cited are 2â5 ml once or twice daily in a little water (Phytopharmaka, 1997).
In the anti-inflammatory animal study, the decoction inhibited carrageenan-induced rat paw edema at an IDâ
â of approximately 1.7 g/kg orally, and ethyl phenylpropiolate-induced ear edema at 2.0 g/kg orally. These animal dosages are reported for reference only and do not translate directly to human dosing.
The EMA European Union herbal monograph on Species digestivae specifies that combination preparations containing Menyanthidis trifoliatae folium are not to be used for more than 2 weeks.
8. Safety, Contraindications, and Interactions
8.1 Established Contraindications (EMA)
The European Union herbal monograph on Menyanthes trifoliata L., folium lists the following contraindications: hypersensitivity to the active substance, and active gastric or duodenal ulcer.
Bogbean is closely related to the gentians, which are famous bitter herbs used as a digestive and general body tonic. The plant can be used similarly, but it can irritate the digestive system of patients with gastric inflammation or infection.
8.2 Gastrointestinal Adverse Effects
Bogbean is possibly unsafe in large quantities. Bogbean can irritate the stomach and intestines and cause diarrhea, pain, nausea, and vomiting. People suffering from diarrhea, dysentery, colitis, or ulcers of the digestive system should avoid using the herb.
8.3 Pregnancy and Lactation
Bogbean might be unsafe to take during pregnancy. The concern is that bogbean might cause diarrhea, and use should be avoided. No fertility data are available according to the EMA monograph. The EMA monograph recommends avoidance during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
8.4 Bleeding / Coagulation
Bogbean can slow down the clotting process and should be used with caution in individuals with bleeding problems.
8.5 Overdose
No case of overdose has been reported per the EMA monograph for Menyanthes trifoliata L., folium.
8.6 Interactions
Per the EMA EU herbal monograph, no interactions have been reported, no fertility data are available, and no known drug interactions have been identified.
8.7 Overall Safety Data Characterization
Non-clinical information on the safety of Menyanthes trifoliata L., folium preparations is scarce, and there are almost no data on toxicity. The available data do not raise safety concerns. No pharmacokinetic data are available for the herbal substance's constituents. No data are available on clinical studies in special populations, such as the elderly and children.
Not many studies have been conducted on the safety and toxic effect of bogbean, and until more reliable data on the possible side effects are available, caution is warranted.
9. Regulatory and Pharmacopoeial Status
Menyanthes trifoliata L., folium was regarded as a typical bitter agent recorded by many European national pharmacopoeias as officinal. The EMA's Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) has produced a formal assessment report and EU herbal monograph for Menyanthidis trifoliatae folium. Only the use as a traditional herbal medicinal product is recommended by the EMA â meaning clinical evidence for well-established medicinal use has not been established to the EMA's satisfaction.
The EMA EU herbal monograph on Species amarae (bitter herbal teas) includes Menyanthes trifoliata L., folium among a list of herbs eligible for traditional-use registration in combination with bitter herbal substances including Achillea millefolium, Artemisia absinthium, Centaurium erythraea, Cichorium intybus, Gentiana lutea, Marrubium vulgare, and Taraxacum officinale.
Contemporary research continues to explore its gastrointestinal pharmacology and safety.
References
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