Borassus aethiopum

Borassus aethiopum (African Fan Palm): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description

Borassus aethiopum Mart. (Family Arecaceae), commonly known as the African Fan Palm, is a tropical palm species found widely across Africa, used globally for both medicinal and non-medicinal purposes. In English it is variously referred to as African fan palm, African palmyra palm, deleb palm, ron palm, toddy palm, black rhun palm, and rônier palm (from the French).

Popularly called the African fan palm, it is a tall, solitary, and pleonanthic widespread dioecious palm that commonly grows in African savannas and is restricted to riverine areas of drier places. The plant is a member of the Coryphoideae subfamily of the Arecaceae family.

The typical form of Borassus aethiopum is a solitary palm to 25 metres (82 feet) in height and 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter at the base. It is characterised by a crown up to 8 m wide; young palms are covered with dry leaf stalks showing gradually fading leaf scars; trees over 25 years old have a swelling of the trunk at 12–15 m above the ground (at 2/3 of the height); bark is pale grey in older palms and is more or less smooth.

Leaves are very large and fan-shaped, bluish-green, 15–30, up to 3.5 m long, including the petiole which is marked with sharp, black thorns; leaflets are symmetric at the base. The fruit is a large drupe, approximately 15 cm in diameter, ovoid, orange to brown when ripe; the fibrous pulp contains 3 woody kernels with an albumen that becomes hard when ripe.

1.1 Geographic Distribution

It is widespread across much of tropical Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia and south to northern South Africa, though it is largely absent from the forested areas of Central Africa and desert regions such as the Sahara and Namib. This palm also grows in northwest Madagascar and the Comoros.

1.2 Common Names by Region

In Nigeria, B. aethiopum is known as Giginya in Hausa and Vheng among the Jenjo People of Karim-Lamido Local Government Area in Taraba State; it has been traditionally utilized for its medicinal and nutritional properties in various African communities.

1.3 Common Forms and Preparations

Various parts of the plant are used in research and traditional practice. The principal plant parts documented in scientific literature and ethnobotanical surveys include:

• Fruit pulp (mesocarp): Consumed fresh, dried into flour, or extracted (aqueous or ethanolic) for bioactivity testing. Borassus-fortified bread contains dietary fiber and other phytonutrients including flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, triterpenes, phenolics, steroids and sterols, and vitamin C.
• Hypocotyl (germinating seedling shoot): The hypocotyls are very appreciated by populations for food and traditional medicine.
• Sap (palm wine): The tip of the trunk is cut and excavated so that a bowl-shaped depression is made where sap accumulates. The sap is then collected and slightly fermented into a refreshing drink. It can be used for the manufacture of various products like palm wine, syrups, sugars, functional foods, etc.
• Roots and leaves: Used primarily for decoctions in ethnomedicinal practice, as documented in pharmacological studies.
• Male inflorescences: Used in traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of various diseases including bronchitis and laryngitis, and their male inflorescences were reported to exhibit cicatrizing, antiseptic, and fungicidal properties.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

In Benin, 992 face-to-face individual semi-structured interviews were conducted in six villages spanning humid, sub-humid and semi-arid chorological regions. The number of use-reports and score of importance of uses of B. aethiopum were recorded in six use-categories including medicine, food, handcraft, construction, firewood, and ceremonies and rituals.

Informants listed 121 uses for B. aethiopum: medicine (66 uses), handcraft (16 uses), food (16 uses), construction (12 uses), firewood (6 uses), and ceremonies and rituals (5 uses); food use was the most culturally important use (2.45 ± 0.03), followed by construction and medicinal uses.

Among palm species, Borassus aethiopum is the third most used palm species in traditional medicines in Africa.

2.1 West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Togo, Senegal)

The fruits and hypocotyl are used in traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of various diseases including malaria, bronchitis, skin infections, and infertility, as well as for nutritional purposes. Ethnobotanical survey revealed aphrodisiac properties of hypocotyls and their contribution to the treatment of disorders of male erection.

In Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, and Benin, B. aethiopum has been reported by several studies to be used as an aphrodisiac agent. The hypocotyl is the specific plant part used in Northern Nigeria as an aphrodisiac agent.

Various parts like roots, shoots, leaves, flowers, and fruits have found use in traditional treatment of some disease conditions like viral illnesses, skin diseases, and diarrhea.

The roots are often decocted to address digestive ailments, such as diarrhea and dysentery, while the seeds are sometimes used for their purported anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties.

2.2 Cultural and Ceremonial Significance

Borassus aethiopum is regarded as a socioeconomically significant palm species in Ghana, where it is used as a possible supply of raw materials for industrial, food and beverage, traditional medicine, and building purposes.

The African fan palm's organs, such as its fruits, hypocotyls, boles, petioles, leaves, and blades, are gathered for nutritional, therapeutic, and construction purposes. Fruits and young seedlings are consumed, and wine is tapped from the palm.

2.3 Food Use

In some cultures, the sap is consumed as a tonic to boost overall vitality and energy, reflecting its reputation as a general health enhancer. The fresh sap from B. aethiopum presents good nutritional value and its consumption can help to improve food intake in rural populations.

3. Key Chemical Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Secondary Metabolites

Studies have shown that Borassus fruit pulp contains phytochemicals: flavonoids, alkaloids, triterpenes, steroids and sterols (cardiac glycosides), saponins, and phenols, as well as substantial antioxidant levels.

Phytochemical testing of both aqueous and methanol extraction of raw B. aethiopum powder (RBAP) indicated that it contained flavonoids, saponins, phenols, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids, triterpenes, steroids, and sterols.

The phytochemical composition varies by plant part and extraction method. From the male inflorescences, chemical analysis of the E2F2 extract revealed the presence of sterols, triterpenes, and saponoids, whose known pharmacological activities can justify their use in traditional medicine.

From leaf extract specifically, phytochemical analysis revealed significant concentrations of flavonoids (14.2%), alkaloids (8.4%), oxalates (2.30 mg/100 g), phenolic compounds (2.80 ppm), and saponins.

From a study on the hypocotyl fraction, phytochemistry showed the availability of anthraquinone, saponin, tannin, cardiac glycoside, flavonoid, steroid, terpenoid, alkaloid, and phlobatannin.

From the aqueous ripe fruit extract, analysis revealed the presence of tannins, terpenoids, saponins, and cardiac glycosides.

3.2 Nutritional Constituents of the Fruit

Amino acid analysis by HPLC demonstrated that the fruit revealed tyrosine as the most abundant amino acid, with a mean concentration of 61.773 ppm (51.9% of total amino acid content); phenylalanine was detected at 46.706 ppm (39.3%), threonine at 6.975 ppm (5.9%), and asparagine at 3.491 ppm (2.9%).

For vitamins, vitamin B1 (thiamine) had the highest concentration at 676.201 ppm (91.1%), followed by folate (vitamin B9) at 62.549 ppm (8.4%), with trace amounts of vitamin K (1.991 ppm) and vitamin E (1.355 ppm) also detected.

3.3 Sap Composition

The mean values of pH, total and reducing sugar content of fresh sap were 4.84 ± 0.5, 11.36 ± 3.97, and 2.93 ± 1.22% w/v respectively; sucrose, glucose, fructose and Vitamin C values were 6.75% w/v, 4.99 g/L, 7.09 g/L, and 8.93% w/v respectively. Soluble proteins, arabinose, phenols, and ethanol were present in low concentration. Calcium, potassium, magnesium, and ammonium were present in palm sap, with the highest potassium content at 13.26 g/L.

Organic acids were also characterised in palm sap: lactate (2.41 ± 0.86 g/L), succinate (2.49 ± 1.46 g/L), acetate (0.01 ± 0.006 g/L), malate (0.17 ± 0.31 g/L), propionate (0.07 ± 0.04 g/L), citrate (0.19 ± 0.11 g/L), tartrate (0.08 ± 0.09 g/L), and pyruvate (0.05 ± 0.03 g/L) were detected in palm sap.

3.4 Proposed Mechanisms of Action

The plant extract shows the presence of triterpenoids, saponins, tannins, phenols, and alkaloids. Researchers have shown that different phytochemicals possess a wide range of activities which may help in protection against inflammatory diseases. Glycosides, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, and triterpenoids have been reported to possess anti-inflammatory activities and could be responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity observed.

With respect to antimicrobial action, tannins are high molecular weight biomolecules that have astringent properties; they complex with bacterial cell walls and engage in enzyme inhibition and substrate deprivation. Tannin compounds inhibit microbial growth by causing bacterial colonies to disintegrate, resulting from their interference with the bacterial cell.

For androgenic effects, following intake of the B. aethiopum extract, no evidence of testicular injury was observed; instead, it showed normal seminiferous tubules containing an increased concentration of spermatogonia cells and mature spermatozoa with a slight indication of cellular proliferation. A possible explanation could be the presence of tannins and phytosterols which have been reported to improve male reproductive functions.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical (animal/in vitro); no human clinical trials identified.

The anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and anti-inflammatory activities of an ethanolic extract of the fruit of Borassus aethiopum were investigated. The carrageenan-induced foot edema model in chicks was used to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity of an ethanolic extract of the seed endocarp cotyledon.

The extracts were given per os to chicks at 30 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, and 300 mg/kg, 1 hour after induction of edema with 2% w/v carrageenan. Among 3 fractions of E2F2, fraction I1 was the most active with a percentage of inhibition (PI) of 80%. This anti-inflammatory activity was twice as high as indomethacin (PI = 40%).

The I1 fraction caused a significant decline in concentration of CRP compared with indomethacin. The radical scavenging activities of I1 were approximately 4 times lower than ascorbic acid.

Phytochemical analyses of Borassus aethiopum extracts revealed the presence of terpenoids, steroids, and saponins, which have all been shown to be potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agents. The study confirmed the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of Borassus aethiopum extracts with results comparable with those of standard compounds such as indomethacin. These are preclinical animal findings only.

4.2 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence level: In vitro; no human clinical trials identified.

For antioxidant activity determination, three assays were employed: the total antioxidant capacity assay, the DPPH scavenging assay, and the Folin-Ciocalteau assay for total phenols.

In a study comparing Borassus species, the total phenolic content (TPC) recorded for B. aethiopum was 23 ± 3.54 mg GAE/g dried extract. The DPPH antioxidant activity for B. aethiopum was 28.22 ± 0.43%, while the ABTS antioxidant activity was 70.98 ± 2.89%. B. aethiopum had higher ABTS radical activity (71%) than B. flabellifer (57%).

These findings are exclusively in vitro; they indicate antioxidant potential but do not demonstrate clinical benefit.

4.3 Antidiabetic and Hypoglycaemic Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical (animal models); one pilot human study (indirect, as part of fortified food intervention).

In an alloxan-induced diabetic rat model, normoglycaemic and alloxan-induced diabetic rats were treated with fruit extract (FEB) at doses of 100 mg, 250 mg, and 500 mg/kg body weight; observations on body weight, relative organ weight, haematological and biochemical parameters were measured. The presence of tannins, saponins, glycosides, triterpenoids, and alkaloids were detected. Fasting blood glucose was reduced significantly (p<0.05) in diabetic rats in the acute study at a dose of 500 mg/kg body weight and at 250 mg and 500 mg/kg body weight in sub-chronic studies.

WBC and platelet levels were significantly increased after treatment with 500 mg/kg body weight. Urea and ALT levels also reduced significantly in both acute and sub-chronic studies. The aqueous fruit extract of B. aethiopum was concluded to be antidiabetic, nephron-protective, and hepatoprotective, as well as boosting the immunity of the animals.

These are animal data and cannot be extrapolated directly to clinical use in humans without further trials.

4.4 Cardiovascular and Metabolic Risk Factors — Human Pilot Study

Evidence level: One pilot randomised single-blinded placebo-controlled clinical trial (the only human intervention study identified in the literature). Results are preliminary.

A pilot study using a single-blinded randomized placebo-controlled trial was conducted by administering Borassus-fortified bread (150 g) and an indistinguishable placebo (150 g white flour bread) daily to 122 CVD outpatients at 37 Military Hospital, Accra, Ghana, for 90 days. Body composition, blood pressure, and biochemical parameters were evaluated before and after the intervention.

Following the intervention, mean waist circumference (before: 98.3 ± 14.6 cm, after: 95.9 ± 15.8 cm, P = 0.030), BMI (before: 31.4 ± 6.9 kg/m², after: 28.0 ± 5.8 kg/m², P = 0.027), and visceral fat (before: 10.4 ± 3.2, after: 9.9 ± 3.0, P = 0.013), as well as systolic (from 161.2 ± 25.5 to 137.6 ± 22.9) and diastolic (from 99.2 ± 13.6 to 85.1 ± 10.8) blood pressure, were significantly reduced among the experimental group.

Serum total cholesterol (TC), LDL, and HDL were significantly reduced within the experimental group before (TC: 5.9 ± 1.1, LDL: 3.4 ± 1.1, and HDL: 2.2 ± 0.5 mmol/L) and after the intervention (TC: 4.9 ± 1.1, LDL: 2.8 ± 0.9, and HDL: 1.5 ± 0.4 mmol/L); these reductions were not observed in the controls.

Some studies have shown the presence of phytochemicals such as saponins, tannins, terpenoids, flavonoids, sterols, and saponins in Borassus-fortified bread, and these could have potentially influenced the decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, total cholesterol, and LDL.

The reduction in waist circumference, visceral fat, and BMI can be explained by the higher fiber content of the Borassus-fortified bread, and this might have influenced the reduction in fat absorption.

The conclusion was that Borassus-fortified bread significantly reduced blood pressure and improved lipid profile and other metabolic risk factors among the CVD outpatients studied. Important limitations include the single-blind design, the pilot-scale sample size, the use of a fortified food (not a standardised extract), and the relatively short 90-day duration. The study does not isolate the specific active compounds responsible.

4.5 Antimicrobial Activity

Evidence level: In vitro only; no clinical trials identified.

A study by Ayertey et al. (2018) investigated the aqueous ripe fruit extract against a panel of clinical bacterial strains. The extract's antimicrobial activity was studied by agar well diffusion method against Salmonella typhi ATCC 19430, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 33495, Proteus mirabilis ATCC 25923, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC, among others. At concentrations of 30%, 40%, and 50% w/v (0.3 g/ml, 0.4 g/ml, and 0.5 g/ml) of the extract, all the test bacterial strains were susceptible to the aqueous ripe fruit extracts of B. aethiopum.

Ripe fruit extracts of B. aethiopum were rich in phytochemicals and exhibited potential antibacterial activity against all seven bacterial strains used.

Regarding minimum inhibitory concentrations: the MIC and MBC of Borassus aethiopum ranged between 0.20–12.50 mg/mL and 12.50–25.00 mg/mL, respectively. Synergy was observed for B. aethiopum combined with standard antimicrobial agents. These are in vitro data only; no in vivo antimicrobial efficacy studies or clinical trials were identified.

4.6 Antiplasmodial (Antimalarial) Activity

Evidence level: In vitro and ethnobotanical survey; no clinical trials identified.

A comprehensive ethnomedicinal survey and in vitro study (Gruca et al., 2015; J. Ethnopharmacol. 175:356–369; PMID: 26384000) assessed malaria-related traditional uses and laboratory activity. The highest medicinal use value was recorded for the use of B. aethiopum against malaria, and a subsequent laboratory investigation evaluated anti-plasmodial activity; several root and leaf extracts displayed anti-plasmodial activity, with the highest (78% at 50 μg/mL) elicited by one of the dichloromethane root extracts.

The results demonstrated the value of integrating ethnobotanical and pharmacological research in the study of beneficial effects of palm products on human health. While the high inhibitory activity found in dichloromethane extracts cannot validate the ethnomedicinal use, the anti-plasmodial effect observed cannot be nullified. These findings require validation in in vivo models and clinical studies before any clinical conclusions can be drawn.

4.7 Anti-cancer / Pro-apoptotic Activity

Evidence level: In vitro cell-line study only.

The biological activity of E2F2, an apolar extract from Borassus aethiopum male inflorescence, was investigated on colon cancer HT29 cells. E2F2 extract activity on HT29 cell viability and proliferation showed a significant inhibition of proliferation from the first hour with a 100 μg/mL concentration compared to the control group (p<0.01). This inhibition was observed from 2 hours of incubation with 1 μg/mL concentration (p<0.05). The inhibition was dose-dependent. The cytotoxic effect on HT29 cells was accompanied with cell detachment.

These findings are restricted to cell-line assays, which represent the most preliminary form of evidence; no animal or human data on anticancer effects are documented in the identified literature.

4.8 Androgenic, Aphrodisiac, and Reproductive Effects

Evidence level: Preclinical (rodent) studies; no clinical trials identified.

A study on the hydromethanol hypocotyl extract of B. aethiopum used 40 male Wistar rats divided into four groups. The extract was administered orally at doses of 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg to the experimental groups. Sperm parameters (count, motility, viability, and morphology) and gonadal indices were determined and testicular tissues were examined histologically. The extract increased sperm count significantly in a dose-dependent manner across all treatment groups (p<0.05). Sperm viability was significantly increased in the treatment group after 7 days but was unaffected after 28 days of treatment.

The results of this study suggest that the extract increases sperm count, motility, and spermatogenesis at the doses tested and is likely to be beneficial in the management of male infertility. This conclusion is based exclusively on animal data.

A separate investigation of the androgenic potential of the ethylacetate fraction of B. aethiopum hypocotyl (EFBAH) found that animals in groups B–D were placed on different concentrations (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg body weight) of EFBAH once a day over a 21-day period; testicular levels of testosterone, LH, FSH, activities of testicular GGT, LDH, and HMG-CoA reductase as well as concentrations of cholesterol, L-arginine, and nitric oxide were evaluated. EFBAH substantively (p < 0.05) heightened testicular levels of biomolecules when matched with the control animals.

4.9 Glycation Inhibition

Evidence level: Preliminary (in vitro/laboratory).

A study by Usman et al. (2023) documented the effect of Syzygium guineense and Borassus aethiopum leaves on protein glycation and oxidative stress suppression, published in the Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, volume 31(1): 73–79. Detailed study results were not available in indexed sources reviewed; this remains a preliminary area.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Borassus aethiopum

Based on the peer-reviewed literature surveyed, the following body systems and health domains have been investigated in relation to B. aethiopum:

• Cardiovascular system: Blood pressure, lipid profile, and metabolic risk markers (human pilot data available; see Section 4.4).
• Endocrine/metabolic system: Blood glucose regulation and hypoglycaemic potential (animal data); documented properties of B. aethiopum hypocotyl include antioxidative and free radical-scavenging property, androgenic effects, antiplasmodial properties, antimicrobial properties, and antidiabetic activity.
• Immune and inflammatory system: Anti-inflammatory activity in animal models (carrageenan edema model).
• Male reproductive system: Sperm parameters and gonadal indices in animal models; aphrodisiac uses documented ethnobotanically across West Africa.
• Infectious disease / antimicrobial: In vitro activity against bacterial pathogens and Plasmodium falciparum.
• Oncology (experimental): Pro-apoptotic activity in HT-29 colon cancer cell line (in vitro only).
• Digestive system: Traditional use for diarrhea and dysentery (ethnobotanical; not yet confirmed in clinical research).
• Oxidative stress: DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity demonstrated in vitro.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

No standardised commercial dosage has been established, and no regulatory authority (e.g., NIH ODS, EMA, WHO) has published an official monograph with dosage guidance for B. aethiopum. The following dosages appear only in the primary research studies cited above and are not clinical recommendations:

• Anti-inflammatory (animal, chick model): Extracts were given per os to chicks at 30 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, and 300 mg/kg, 1 hour after induction of edema with 2% w/v carrageenan.
• Antidiabetic (animal, rat model): Normoglycaemic and alloxan-induced diabetic rats were treated with fruit extract (FEB) at doses of 100 mg, 250 mg, and 500 mg/kg body weight.
• Reproductive/aphrodisiac (animal, rat model): The extract was administered orally at doses of 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg to male Wistar rats.
• Androgenic fraction study (animal): Animals were placed on different concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg body weight of EFBAH once a day over a 21-day period.
• Human cardiovascular pilot trial: Borassus-fortified bread (150 g) was administered daily to 122 CVD outpatients at 37 Military Hospital, Accra, Ghana, for 90 days. The exact quantity of B. aethiopum flour per serving was monitored but was not explicitly quantified in the abstract data available.
• Antimicrobial (in vitro): At concentrations of 30%, 40%, and 50% w/v (0.3 g/mL, 0.4 g/mL, and 0.5 g/mL) of the aqueous extract, all bacterial test strains were susceptible.

7. Safety Considerations

Borassus aethiopum is the third most used palm species in traditional medicines in Africa, yet there is only limited information substantiating its medicinal properties. No comprehensive human safety trials, systematic reviews, or official pharmacopeial monographs governing safety were identified in the literature surveyed for this article.

7.1 Acute Toxicity (Animal Data)

From a toxicological study, the LD50 of the hypocotyl extract was found to be greater than 5000 mg/kg in Wistar rats, which is an indication that it is relatively safe for human consumption.

There was significant elevation of testosterone, progesterone, LH, and FSH at higher doses of the extract. Toxicity studies indicated that the dose and duration must be regulated to avoid untoward adverse effects.

7.2 Organ Effects in Animal Models

Urea and ALT levels reduced significantly in both acute and sub-chronic studies with the fruit extract. The aqueous fruit extract was found to be nephron- and hepatoprotective as well as boosting the immunity of the animals in alloxan-induced diabetic rats — though this represents protective effects at the doses studied, not confirmed safety data in humans.

7.3 Evidence Gaps

In vitro and animal studies have pointed to possible anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory effects, though these findings have not yet been robustly confirmed in human clinical trials. Comprehensive clinical studies in humans are limited.

Despite multiple studies, there is no report in the literature to substantiate or refute the purported use of the plant extract by locals as a laxative, creating a research gap that needs to be addressed.

Further studies are needed to isolate, purify, and identify the chemical structures of the compounds responsible for anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.

7.4 Microbiological Considerations of Sap

Microbiological analysis of B. aethiopum sap gave 1.23 ± 1.01 × 10⁸ cfu/mL for total aerobic flora, 7.27 ± 1.19 × 10⁵ cfu/mL for yeasts, 1.86 ± 1.63 × 10⁷ cfu/mL for lactic acid bacteria, and 3.75 ± 0.75 × 10⁵ cfu/mL for acetic acid bacteria. The high microbial load in fresh sap suggests microbiological safety is a relevant concern for unprocessed forms of consumption, particularly in the context of rapid fermentation after tapping.

References

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