Bottle gourd

Other Names

AcocoteAdenopus abyssinicus var. somaliensisAnapakayaBagBirdhouse gourdCabacoCajombreCalabashCalabash gourdCalabazaCalebassierChurakkaCojombroCourge bouteilleCucumis bicirrhaCucumis lagenariusCucumis maireiCucurbitCucurbita hispidaCucurbita idolatricaCucurbita lagenariaCucurbita leucanthaCucurbita longaCucurbita pyriformisCucurbita sicerariaCucurbita vittataCucuzzaDoodhiDudhiDudhi-BhopalaFlaschenkürbisFlaskkurbitsGewöhnlicher FlaschenkürbisGhiyaGourdGourde bouteilleGuiro amargoHu luHu lu guaJatilaoKalebasseLagenaria bicornutaLagenaria cochinchinensisLagenaria hispidaLagenaria idolatricaLagenaria lagenariaLagenaria leucanthaLagenaria longissimaLagenaria microcarpaLagenaria sicerariaLagenaria vulgarisLauLaukiLong melonMokwaNew Guinea beanNew Guinea butter beanOpo squashPo guaSorakayaSorekayiSuraikkaaiTalayagTasmania beanTrumpet gourdUpoWhite flower gourdWhite-flowered gourdZucca bottigliaZucca da vinoZucca melon

Synopsis

Bottle Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

Scientific Nomenclature and Classification

Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley (family: Cucurbitaceae) is an annual herbaceous climbing plant with a long history of traditional medicinal uses in many countries, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. The species name is sometimes rendered with the alternate authority notation Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl. It is a robust annual vine with large leaves and a lush appearance that may be grown as a running or climbing vine.

The fruits of bottle gourd have a variety of shapes: they can be huge and rounded, small and bottle-shaped, or slim and serpentine, and they can grow to be over a meter long. Rounder varieties are typically called calabash gourds.

Vernacular Names

The plant carries a large number of vernacular names: in Sanskrit it is known as Katutumbi, Tumbi, Ishavaaku, Tiktaalaabu, Alobu, and Alaabu; in Hindi as Lauki or Ghiya; in Gujarati as Dudi or Tumbadi; in Telugu as Sorakaya; in Tamil as Sorakkai or Surai; and in Urdu as Ghiya or Lauki.

Geographic Origin and Distribution

The bottle gourd is said to have originated in Africa and spread worldwide in pre-Columbian times, possibly via floating on the oceans. It moved from India to Indonesia, New Zealand, and China, where it has diversified into several local kinds. It is a climbing perennial plant that is extensively grown as a vegetable crop in tropical nations such as Thailand, Egypt, India, Japan, and the rest of the world.

Common Forms and Preparations

Alternative medicine is made from several components of this plant, including the fruit, seed, leaf, and root. Common preparations reported in the literature include fresh fruit juice extracted from the raw pulp, aqueous and methanolic extracts of the fruit and leaves, seed kernel powder, fruit pulp boiled in oil, and syrup prepared from tender fruits. The fruits are widely used in Ayurveda and other folk medicines, and a syrup prepared from the tender fruits is used especially for pectoral and respiratory conditions. The fruits of the sweet variety are widely used in home therapies in India; drinking one or two glasses of fresh raw bottle gourd juice in the morning on an empty stomach is one such practice, particularly to deal with obesity-associated disorders.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda (Indian Subcontinent)

The climber has been known for its curative properties since ancient times and has been utilized for treatment of various ailments, including jaundice, diabetes, ulcer, piles, colitis, insanity, hypertension, congestive cardiac failure, and skin diseases. It is listed under the synonyms Doodhi and Lauki (Hindi) and Kadoo (Marathi), and is official in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia.

Since ancient times, the climber has been known for its curative properties. Its fruit pulp is used both as an emetic and purgative, and for its cooling, diuretic, antibilious, and pectoral properties. Boiled in oil, this pulp is used to treat rheumatism and insomnia.

In Ayurvedic practice, its juice is used as nasya (nasal administration) in jaundice and headache due to kapha dosha, and its oil is useful for shodhan (cleansing) therapy in inflammation, lymphadenitis, wound care, dermatoses, cough, asthma, and vomiting.

Folk Medicine Across Asia and Africa

The fruit is extensively used as a medicinal vegetable in Asia and Africa for a variety of ailments. Traditional uses of the fruit include cardioprotective, antidote, aphrodisiac, cardiotonic, diuretic, and general tonic properties. The fruit juice has been used as a cure for jaundice and to heal other liver ailments, as it is considered to possess good antioxidant properties.

In Ayurveda and other folk medicine traditions, the fruit was also used as an antidote to certain poisons and scorpion stings, as a purgative alternative, and for its cooling effects. It was used to address pain, ulcers, and fever, as well as for pectoral cough, asthma, and other bronchial disorders.

Tender fruits of L. siceraria have been traditionally used as a cardiotonic, general tonic, liver tonic for liver disorders, an aphrodisiac, for pain relief, as an anti-inflammatory agent, expectorant, and diuretic promoting proper kidney function.

Use in China and Other Regions

The plant is used as medicine in India, China, European countries, Brazil, and the Hawaiian islands for its cardiotonic, general tonic, and diuretic properties. Leaves and roots are used as emetics, to reduce baldness, and to relieve headache. Flowers are used as an antidote to certain kinds of poisons.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Primary Phytochemical Classes

A wide range of chemical compounds including sterols, terpenoids, flavonoids, and saponins have been isolated from the species. Vitamins, choline, flavonoids, minerals, proteins, terpenoids, and other phytochemicals are also found in the edible parts of this plant. Ascorbic acid, triterpenes, minerals, choline, amino acids, vitamin-B complex, triterpenoid cucurbitacins B, D, H, G, 22-deoxy cucurbitacin, β-glycosidase-elasterase, flavonoids, sterols, and carbohydrates are all found in the edible part of the fruit.

Cucurbitacins (Triterpenoid Bitter Principles)

Cucurbitacins B, H, G, and D, as well as the bitter principle of the Cucurbitaceae, are said to be present in the fruit along with Flavone-C glycosides (a ribosome-inactivating protein), two sterols — fucosterol and campesterol — terpene bryonolic acid (an allergic compound) and Lagenin. Bitter fruits yield approximately 0.013% of a solid form containing cucurbitacins B, D, G, and H, with cucurbitacin B predominating. Cucurbitacin, a secondary metabolite found in the seeds and fruit sections of several cucurbits, has been described to have purgative, emetic, and anthelmintic actions. This category of chemicals has been considered for its anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, and cardiovascular properties.

Flavonoids and Flavone-C Glycosides

Miroslawa and Cisowski (1995) isolated 4-C-glycosylflavones including 7-O-glucosyl-6-C-glucoside apigenin, 6-C-glucoside apigenin, 6-C-glucoside luteolin, and 7,4'-O-diglucosyl-6-C-glucoside apigenin from the plant, identified by spectroscopic analysis. Furthermore, using high-performance liquid chromatography, the flavonoids in L. siceraria fruits were determined to be mainly isovitexin, isoorientin, saponarin, and saponarin 4'-O-glucoside.

Sterols

The seeds contain steroidal moieties like avenasterol, codisterol, elesterol, isofucasterol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, campesterol, and spinasterol, along with sugar moieties including rhamnose, fructose, glucose, sucrose, and raffinose, as well as saponin. Seed kernels are rich in iron, potassium, sulfur, and magnesium and are particularly rich in copper (28.3 ppm), and can be used as a dietary supplement.

Lagenin (Ribosome-Inactivating Protein)

Lagenin, a new 20 kDa protein isolated from the seeds, has been shown to have anticancer, antiviral, antiproliferative, and anti-HIV properties. Lagenin — a novel ribosome-inactivating protein — was isolated from the lyophilized water extract of L. siceraria seeds and shown to possess antitumor, immunosuppressive, antiviral, antiproliferative, and anti-HIV activities.

Volatile Compounds

In 2009, Chatterjee isolated volatile principles by steam distillation and analyzed them by GC/MS. Aliphatic aldehydes such as octanal, nonanal, and decanal, with fruity, floral, and citrus odors, dominated the volatile profile of bottle gourd. These possess strong fruity, citrusy, and floral odors, low odor thresholds, and may play important roles in giving the fruit its characteristic aroma.

Additionally, glycosidic precursors including 1,4-benzenediol, 2-pentadecyn-1-ol, 9,12-octadecadienal, and fatty acids such as palmitic acid and stearic acid dominated the volatile aroma profile.

Bryonolic Acid

A triterpene, bryonolic acid, an antiallergic compound, was reported from callus culture of L. siceraria roots.

GC-MS-Identified Isoprenoids

A 2022 study investigated the phytochemical constituents of L. siceraria fruits using GC-MS. Five isoprenoids present in all investigated landraces were 1-Dodecene, 2,3-Dimethyldodecane, E-15-Heptadecenal, Eicosane, and Tridecane-6-propyl. The high content of isoprenoids and organic acids is considered to underlie the many health benefits attributed to the plant.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Antioxidant Activity

Fruit extract exhibited significant antioxidant activity in dyslipidemic subjects as evident from elevations in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) levels, with marked improvement in catalase and TBARS levels. Phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of saponins, glycosides, flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds, all of which contribute to free radical scavenging.

Lipid Metabolism Modulation

The hypolipidemic mechanism has been attributed to the saponin content of the fruit, which is thought to promote bile salt excretion and thereby reduce circulating cholesterol. L. siceraria has the ability to promote bile salt excretion. The flavonoids and phytosterols present may also contribute to inhibition of cholesterol absorption and modulation of lipid synthesis pathways.

Cytotoxic / Antiproliferative Action of Cucurbitacins

Cucurbitacin I and other bioactive compounds in L. siceraria fruit bitter extracts showed dose-dependent inhibitory and cytotoxic effects on tested cell lines, which can be ascribed to the presence of cucurbitacin I and other bioactive compounds. The ribosome-inactivating protein lagenin operates by enzymatically cleaving rRNA, thereby halting protein synthesis in target cells.

Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Action

Tender fruits contain phytochemicals such as terpenoids, saponins, flavonoids, polyphenolics, and tannins. The cucurbitacin triterpenoids and flavonoids are believed to contribute to the observed anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects through inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis and modulation of inflammatory mediators, though precise mechanistic studies in humans remain limited.

Diuretic Mechanism

Polysaccharides extracted from various portions of the plant have been found to have immune-modulating, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, cardioprotective, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, and anti-hyperlipidemic properties. The diuretic action has been attributed to the saponin and flavone content, which may modulate renal tubular transport.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Risk

Human clinical evidence: A published study validated the antidyslipidemic, antioxidant, and antihyperglycemic effects of L. siceraria fruit extract in human subjects with dyslipidemia along with subjects of normal health. A total of 200 mL of freshly prepared fruit extract was administered daily on an empty stomach for 90 days. Significant reductions (p < .01) were found in triglycerides and total cholesterol levels in blood. Cardiac risk ratio, atherogenic coefficient, and atherogenicity index of plasma were also improved. Appreciable reductions in BMI (p < .01) and blood pressure (systolic p < .01, diastolic p < .05), along with a significant reduction (p < .05) in fasting blood glucose levels, were also observed.

Evidence characterization: While statistically significant results were reported, these studies are generally small, conducted primarily in India, and lack blinding or placebo controls. Larger, multi-center, double-blind randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are needed before firm clinical conclusions can be drawn.

5.2 Type 2 Diabetes and Hyperglycemia

Human study details: The aim of one study was to evaluate the nutraceutical potential of bottle gourd juice in the management of human diabetes and associated dyslipidemia. The study involved the administration of freshly prepared bottle gourd juice (200 mL) to 100 human participants (diabetic patients n = 50; healthy volunteers n = 50) on an empty stomach for 90 consecutive days. Biochemical markers of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism plus kidney and liver function were monitored at monthly intervals.

In this randomized, controlled trial, a systematic approach using experimental and clinical validation was taken to explore the therapeutic potential of bottle gourd juice in the treatment of diabetic dyslipidemia and hyperglycemia.

Evidence characterization: The existing human trials show promising results in reducing fasting blood glucose and improving lipid profiles in type 2 diabetics. However, methodological details (randomization procedures, blinding, control arms) are inconsistently reported, and the overall body of evidence remains preliminary. No well-powered, blinded RCT from multiple independent centers has been published to date.

5.3 Hepatoprotective Activity

The fruit juice has been cited as a cure for jaundice and to heal other liver ailments, as it possesses antioxidant properties. L. siceraria fruit juice has been used to treat jaundice and certain liver problems.

Evidence characterization: The hepatoprotective evidence is primarily based on animal models and in vitro studies. Researchers have evaluated various parts of this plant including fruit, root, flowers, and leaves for pharmacological activities such as antihepatotoxic and hepatoprotective properties. Direct, rigorously controlled human clinical trials for hepatoprotection are not available in the published literature reviewed.

5.4 Antihypertensive and Cardioprotective Activity

Previous preclinical studies demonstrated cardioprotective and antihypertensive effects of L. siceraria fruit powder in isoprenaline-induced cardiotoxicity and dexamethasone-induced hypertension models in rats. In the traditional system, L. siceraria fruit has been used as a cardiotonic, in urinary infection, as an anthelmintic, and is documented to have hepatoprotective, diuretic, antihyperlipidemic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Evidence characterization: Antihypertensive and cardioprotective data are predominantly from animal models, with some supportive signals in the human dyslipidemia studies noted above. These effects have not yet been confirmed in dedicated, properly powered human hypertension trials.

5.5 Anticancer Activity

Cucurbitacin I and other bioactive compounds in L. siceraria fruit bitter extracts demonstrated dose-dependent inhibitory and cytotoxic effects on tested cell lines. Aerial parts of the plant demonstrated significant anticancer activity in an Ehrlich's Ascites Carcinoma mouse model, which may be due to cytotoxicity and antioxidant activity.

A novel protein, lagenin, has also been isolated from its seeds and shown to possess antitumor, immunoprotective, and antiproliferative properties.

Evidence characterization: Anticancer evidence is entirely preclinical — confined to cell lines and animal models. No human oncology trials for L. siceraria extracts have been identified.

5.6 Central Nervous System: Anxiolytic, Antidepressant, and Anti-OCD Activity

Preliminary phytochemical screening of methanolic extract of L. siceraria showed the presence of flavonoids, saponins, sterols, proteins, tannins, and carbohydrates. Methanolic extract of L. siceraria fruits was tested for anti-compulsive (anti-OCD) effects using a marble-burying behavioral model in mice. The study concluded that the methanolic extract showed anti-compulsive effect in a dose-dependent manner. Phytochemical screening showed the presence of flavonoids, saponins, and steroids, which may account for biological activities. Isolation and identification of the responsible compound(s) could be used as prototypes to design new substances with anti-OCD activity. The major active components and precise anti-compulsive mechanisms remain to be identified.

Researchers have also evaluated various plant parts for antianxiety and antidepressant pharmacological activities.

Evidence characterization: All CNS evidence is preclinical (animal behavioral models). No human neuropsychiatric trials exist.

5.7 Antimicrobial Activity

Lagenaria siceraria seeds exhibit proven potential to contain antimicrobial properties. Lagenin — a novel ribosome protein isolated from the lyophilized water extract of L. siceraria seeds — was shown to possess antitumor, immunosuppressive, antiviral, antiproliferative, and anti-HIV activities. Seeds extract of the Indian cultivated bottle gourd also exhibited antimicrobial activity against selected pathogens.

Evidence characterization: Antimicrobial data are in vitro and preclinical. No controlled human infection trials have been published.

5.8 Diuretic Activity

Various properties beneficial for human health have been attributed to this plant, including diuretic and laxative activity. Diuretic activity has been reported in animal studies. In traditional practice, bottle gourd juice is used as a home remedy for urinary tract infections.

Evidence characterization: Primarily traditional and animal-model based. No placebo-controlled human diuretic trials have been identified.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Bottle Gourd

Cardioprotective, antidepressant, anti-hyperglycemic, antimicrobial, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antihyperlipidemic, anti-urolithiasis, antianxiety, analgesic, anticancer, diuretic, anthelmintic, antihepatotoxic, antistress, immunomodulatory, antiulcer, hepatoprotective, and antioxidant activities have been studied in various parts of this plant.

Cardiovascular system: Lipid reduction, antihypertensive, cardioprotective, antithrombotic, antiatherosclerotic effects studied in animal models and small human trials.
Metabolic / Endocrine system: Anti-hyperglycemic, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, anti-obesity effects reported in animal and human studies.
Hepatobiliary system: Hepatoprotective, antihepatotoxic effects studied in animals; traditional use for jaundice.
Urinary system: Diuretic and anti-urolithiatic (anti-kidney stone) effects explored in animal models.
Gastrointestinal system: Laxative, antiulcer, antidiarrheal, anthelmintic activity documented in preclinical models.
Central nervous system: Antidepressant, antianxiety, anti-OCD, and adaptogenic activity studied in animal models.
Immune system: Immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive properties; in vitro and in vivo animal studies.
Oncology (preclinical): Cytotoxic, antiproliferative, anti-tumor, and anti-HIV effects via lagenin; cell line and animal model data only.
Respiratory system: Traditional use for asthma, bronchial conditions, and cough.
Musculoskeletal system: Traditional application of pulp boiled in oil for rheumatism.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

In a published human dyslipidemia study, a total of 200 mL of freshly prepared Lagenaria siceraria fruit extract was administered daily on an empty stomach for 90 days.

A separate human study on type 2 diabetes involved the administration of freshly prepared bottle gourd juice (200 mL) to 100 human participants (diabetic patients n = 50; healthy volunteers n = 50) on an empty stomach for 90 consecutive days.

Drinking one or two glasses of fresh raw bottle gourd juice in the morning on an empty stomach is a traditional practice in India, particularly to deal with obesity-associated disorders.

In a preclinical mouse anticancer study, treatment with methanolic extract of L. siceraria aerial parts (MELS) at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg, along with the standard drug 5-Fluorouracil (20 mg/kg), was continued for 9 days after EAC cell inoculation.

Methanolic extract of L. siceraria fruits at doses of 25 and higher mg/kg were used in the marble-burying (anti-OCD) mouse model, with dose-dependent effects reported. No standardized dosage for any indication has been established in human clinical guidelines.

8. Safety Considerations and Adverse Effects

Cucurbitacin Toxicity from Bitter Juice

Consumption of a glass of bottle gourd juice is considered a health tonic and is part of traditional healthy living practices in India. The juice may in certain circumstances turn bitter with increased levels of the cytotoxic compound cucurbitacins. If the bitter juice is consumed, it causes a toxic reaction in the gut, leading to abdominal discomfort and pain, vomiting, hematemesis, and hypotension, which may be rarely fatal, especially in persons with pre-existing illness.

Cucurbitacin is a pheromone produced by the plant as a defense mechanism against insects and herbivores. It is responsible for imparting the bitter taste and the associated toxicity. The exact mechanism of cucurbitacin toxicity is not well understood; however, it is suspected to result in gastric erosions and increased capillary permeability, resulting in rapid onset of vomiting, diarrhea, gastrointestinal bleeding, hypotension, and shock.

Certain conditions such as environmental stress (extreme temperatures, wide temperature swings, too little water), uneven watering practices, low soil fertility, low soil pH, improper storage, and overmature vegetables usually generate higher levels of cucurbitacins in these plants.

Toxicity presents with abdominal discomfort, hematemesis, hypotension, and potential organ dysfunction, with symptoms appearing within approximately 30 minutes of consumption. The clinical picture can mimic gastrointestinal sepsis or other acute conditions, complicating diagnosis. No antidote exists, and supportive management is the cornerstone of treatment, with most patients recovering within one week.

These vegetables usually contain a trace amount of toxic tetracyclic triterpenoid compounds called cucurbitacins. The vegetable becomes bitter if this chemical remains in a large amount. Bitter bottle gourd contains an abnormally high level of these cucurbitacins.

The Sweet vs. Bitter Variety Distinction

Different varieties of Lagenaria siceraria are known to exist; the sweet variety is generally used as a vegetable and for preparation of sweets and pickles, whereas the wild variety is bitter and is preferred for medicinal use. The critical safety implication is that raw juice from a gourd that tastes bitter should never be consumed, regardless of variety.

Diagnostic Challenges

In the absence of a clear history regarding the consumption of bitter bottle gourd juice and the initiation of symptoms, the differential diagnosis for the above symptoms will include diseases causing gastrointestinal bleeding with hypotension and/or shock. Cases have been reported with an initial differential diagnosis of septicemia with septic shock and multi-organ involvement.

As serum and urine concentration measurements of cucurbitacin are not readily available, bottle gourd toxicity remains a clinical diagnosis based largely on the temporal association of ingestion of unusually bitter bottle gourd and symptom onset.

No Specific Antidote

Since there is no specific antidote available, management is mostly supportive with intravenous fluids, control of bleeding, and management of shock.

Bryonolic Acid (Allergic Compound)

Terpene bryonolic acid, reported as an allergic compound, is present in the fruit along with the cucurbitacins and other constituents. Allergic reactions have been documented in the phytochemical literature, though detailed clinical allergy reports are not well characterized in the reviewed sources.

Overall Evidence Quality and Gaps

The vast majority of pharmacological evidence for L. siceraria is derived from in vitro experiments and animal models. Human clinical studies are available for the metabolic and lipid-lowering areas, but these are generally small, conducted in a limited geographic context, and require replication through rigorously designed, blinded, and adequately powered RCTs before any clinical recommendations can be made. Various parts of this plant have been evaluated for an extensive range of pharmacological activities, but translation to clinical endpoints in humans remains largely uninvestigated for most claimed indications.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Bottle gourd may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Bottle gourd may help support.

No body systems available.