Chlorophytum

Other Names

Airplane plantAnthericum comosumAnthericum longituberosumAnthericum picturatumAnthericum sternbergianumAnthericum tuberosumAnthericum vallis-trappiiAnthericum variegatumAnthericum vittatumBili mushaliBracket plantCaesia comosaChlorophyton cheveluChlorophytum arundinaceumChlorophytum borivilianumChlorophytum capenseChlorophytum comosumChlorophytum laxumChlorophytum tuberosumCommon spider plantDholi musliDivya aushadHartwegiaHen and chickensHen and chicksHiranyapushpiHolliaJhirnaKhairuwaMahavrushaPhalangium ornithogaloidesRibbon plantSafed musaliSafed musliSallogaddaSpider ivySpider plantSt. Bernard's lilySwetha musliTalamuliTalapatraTalapatriTaniravi thangTella nela tadiUjali musliVrushaskandaWhite goldWhite musli

Synopsis

Chlorophytum: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Nomenclature, and Natural Source

Genus Overview

Chlorophytum is a genus of almost 200 species of evergreen perennial flowering plants in the Agavoideae subfamily within the family Asparagaceae. The plants are native to tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Australia, and Asia. Most species mature at about 10–60 cm in height, growing from a central rosette of long, slender leaves; they tend to have thick, fleshy, tuberous roots, about 0.5–2 cm thick, and produce small, usually white flowers on sparse panicles. The centre of origin of the genus Chlorophytum is believed to be tropical and subtropical Africa.

Medically Prominent Species

The genus contains numerous species, but several have established medicinal or ethnobotanical profiles. The most commercially and pharmacologically important are:

Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & Fernandes — an herb with lanceolate leaves from tropical wet forests in peninsular India. Known in Hindi as "Safed Musli," it is called "White Gold" or "Divya Aushadhi" and belongs to the family Asparagaceae. This species is by far the most studied and commercially significant member of the genus.
Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker — one of several species of Chlorophytum known as "safed musli" and commonly used in traditional Indian medicine.
Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker — one of the two main species harvested for use as safed musli (the other being C. borivilianum), though several other species are also used.
Chlorophytum comosum (Thunb.) Jacq. — popularly known as the spider plant or grass lily. Used as a medicinal plant in traditional Chinese medicine. Along with other members of the genus, it is of ethnobotanical use in areas of Africa and India.

Out of approximately 200 species in the genus, 13 species are available in India. C. arundinaceum, C. borivilianum, and C. comosum are reported as the most important and commercially recognized species of the genus.

Taxonomy Note on Family Placement

Older literature frequently assigns Chlorophytum species, particularly C. borivilianum, to the family Liliaceae (sensu lato). More current taxonomy places the genus within the family Asparagaceae. Both designations appear throughout the scientific literature depending on the classification system used.

Common Names

The Hindi name for C. borivilianum is "safed musli" (also commonly known as "musli"). Additional names applied across traditions include Shweta Musli, Dholi Musli, and, in reference to its high commercial value, "White Gold" or "Divya Aushadhi" (Divine Medicine).

Common Preparations and Dosage Forms

Across both traditional practice and research settings, Chlorophytum — primarily C. borivilianum — is prepared and administered in several forms:

Dried root powder: The roots are used medicinally as a sex tonic, and in some parts of India the plant is cultivated and eaten as a leaf vegetable.
Aqueous (water) extract: Used in multiple preclinical and clinical studies; water extracts of C. borivilianum have been administered in clinical trials in two divided doses of 500 mg for 12 weeks.
Ethanolic extract: Used in laboratory and preclinical investigations to isolate saponins and other fractions.
Hot water extract / polysaccharide fraction: The polysaccharide fraction (CBP) is derived from hot water extraction of C. borivilianum.
Traditional food preparation: Traditionally, it is used after delivery by females in different compositions in the form of "Laddoos" (a traditional South Asian sweet).

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurvedic Medicine (India)

The root tubers of Chlorophytum borivilianum have been used as an indigenous drug in India for many ailments and health-related problems since the 11th century A.D. In Ayurveda, C. borivilianum belongs to the group of "Vajikaran Rasayana" herbs — a category corroborated by its rejuvenating, aphrodisiac, and natural sex tonic properties and considered effective in alleviating sexual disorders. Traditionally, safed musli is classified in Ayurveda as both a rasayana (rejuvenative tonic) and a vajikaran (aphrodisiac/virilifying) herb.

C. borivilianum is a traditional rare Indian medicinal herb which has many therapeutic applications in Ayurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic and Allopathic systems of medicine, with roots (tubers) widely used for various therapeutic applications. Traditional uses include curing physical illness and weakness, as an aphrodisiac agent and revitalizer, as a general sex tonic, a remedy for diabetes, arthritis, and increasing body immunity, for natal and postnatal problems, for rheumatism and joint pains, increasing lactation in feeding mothers, as an antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory agent, and in diarrhea, dysentery, gonorrhea, and leucorrhea.

The plant is largely used as ethnic medicine by local healers of indigenous communities of India. As a traditional Indian plant, it is widely cultivated throughout India and used as an herbal drug with unique medicinal properties to cure many diseases since ancient times in Ayurvedic, Siddha, Unani, and Homeopathic formulations.

Unani and Other Indian Traditional Systems

Its roots are widely used for various therapeutic applications in the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine. C. borivilianum is traditionally used for lack of libido, male impotency, and oligospermia, and is also widely used as a general health-promotive tonic and for delaying the ageing process.

Postnatal and Women's Use

Traditionally, the plant is used after delivery by females in different compositions in the form of "Laddoos," reflecting its long-standing use as a galactagogue (milk-enhancing agent) and postpartum restorative.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

In southern Chinese folk medicine, C. comosum is used in the treatment of bronchitis, fractures, and burns.

African Ethnobotany

C. comosum, a popular house plant known as the spider plant or grass lily, along with other members of the genus, is of ethnobotanical use in areas of Africa and India. C. tuberosum is a widespread species found in a number of habitats across tropical Africa and India, where it is harvested for local use as both a food and a medicine.

Historical Context and Conservation Status

The related species C. borivilianum was first described from India in 1954, but by 1988 the Botanical Survey of India had assigned it to the IUCN category "Rare" due to overexploitation. Overharvesting has reduced wild populations of safed musli, leading to its classification as endangered in several regions. The restricted distribution and overexploitation of the plant, coupled with low seed set and viability and poor seed germination rate, have made it rare in the wild. C. borivilianum is now cultivated, which has helped to reduce the collection of wild plants.

3. Key Phytochemical Constituents and Mechanisms of Action

Primary Phytochemicals

Phytoconstituents reported to support various health benefits from the tuberous roots of C. borivilianum include saponins, glycosides, polysaccharides, alkaloids, proteins, carbohydrates, flavones, vitamins, phenols, resins, minerals, and sugars such as fructose, xylose, glucose, sucrose, mannose, and galactose.

The root contains approximately 30% alkaloids, 10–20% saponins, 40–45% polysaccharide (mucilage), and 5–7% protein. In addition, C. borivilianum contains steroids, triterpenoids, gallo-tannins, vitamins, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and rare elements such as zinc, copper, phosphorus, resins, and high quantities of simple sugars — mainly sucrose, glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose, and xylose.

Saponins

Its roots contain steroidal and triterpenoidal saponins, sapogenins, and fructans, which act as therapeutic agents. Among all species of Chlorophytum present in India, C. borivilianum roots produce the highest saponin content and it is the most popular species against male sexual problems. The medicinal value is thought to derive substantially from its saponin content, up to 17 percent by dry weight. Several saponins, sapogenins, furostane and spirostane glycosides have been isolated from Chlorophytum species in recent years.

Polysaccharides (Fructans and Mannans)

The polysaccharide fraction (CBP) derived from hot water extraction of C. borivilianum comprises approximately 31% inulin-type fructans and approximately 25% acetylated mannans (of the hot water-soluble extract). Extensive phytochemical evaluation of the roots of C. borivilianum led to the quantification of nearly 60% w/w of polysaccharides in the hot water-soluble material, which were found to be mainly fructans and acetylated mannans. These polysaccharide fractions are considered key contributors to the plant's immunomodulatory activity.

Compounds in C. comosum

In C. comosum, fatty acids, isoprenoid, and steroid compounds are among the most abundant constituents. One identified compound, 4′-methylphenyl-1C-sulfonyl-β-d-galactoside, was not detected earlier in any Chlorophytum extracts.

Homoisoflavanones in C. inornatum

A natural product homoisoflavanone — 3-(4′-methoxybenzyl)-7,8-methylenedioxy-chroman-4-one — was identified from Chlorophytum inornatum and displayed notable antimycobacterial activity against fast-growing Mycobacteria species, with the antimycobacterial activity of that plant being attributed mainly to this homoisoflavonoid.

Established and Proposed Mechanisms of Action

Spermatogenesis/Steroidogenesis: The saponin-enriched n-butanol fraction of C. borivilianum is proposed to interact with CREB and additionally stimulate LH receptors to amplify the expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and 3β-HSD mRNA. This mechanism would link saponin content to enhanced testosterone biosynthesis and spermatogenesis.
Immunomodulation via Polysaccharides: The polysaccharide fraction is the most effective in augmenting NK cell activity as well as humoral immunity, while the phenolic/saponin-rich fraction improved antibody titer. Together, the extract acts via a cascade of mechanisms, modulating the immune system.
Antioxidant activity: The aqueous extract of C. borivilianum considerably inhibits, in a dose-dependent manner, DPPH free radicals and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, showing significant antioxidant property.
Hypolipidaemic mechanism: The hypolipidaemic/hypocholesterolaemic effect of C. borivilianum root powder appears to be mediated by an increase in cholesterol turnover via increased faecal cholesterol excretion and through endogenous cholesterol conversion into bile acid, which may enhance the antioxidant capacity of the liver.
Anti-stress/adaptogenic: The adaptogenic activity is considered to deal with proper modulation of neuro-endocrino-immunological systems.
Stigmasterol and semen volume: The root contains saponin and stigmasterol, which are hypothesized to stimulate the process of spermatogenesis, while the mucilage present is supposed to have a role in increasing the volume of semen.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Male Sexual Function, Libido, and Spermatogenesis

This is the most extensively investigated area of C. borivilianum pharmacology. Evidence spans animal studies and a small number of human clinical trials.

Animal Studies

One published study was designed to evaluate the aphrodisiac and spermatogenic potential of the aqueous extract of dried roots of C. borivilianum in male Wistar albino rats, divided into four groups. Rats were orally treated with distilled water (control), CB 125 mg/kg/day, CB 250 mg/kg/day, or sildenafil citrate (Viagra) at 4 mg/kg/day, and sexual behaviour was monitored 3 hours later using a receptive female. At 125 mg/kg, CB had a marked aphrodisiac action, increased libido, sexual vigour, and sexual arousal. At the higher dose of 250 mg/kg, all parameters of sexual behaviour were enhanced, but showed a saturation effect after day 14.

In another preclinical study, ethanolic extract of roots as well as sapogenins isolated from the roots were studied for effects on sexual behaviour and spermatogenesis in albino rats. Administration of 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg b.w. of the sapogenin and ethanolic extract respectively had pronounced anabolic and spermatogenic effects in treated animals, as evidenced by weight gains in the body and reproductive organs and histological studies.

A standardised extract of the root of safed musli was evaluated for aphrodisiac potential and safety profile on the reproductive system in Wistar albino rats. After 54 days of drug treatment, both doses showed an increase in sperm count and sperm motility, indicating spermatogenic potential beneficial in treating oligospermia. Sperm abnormality increased at both doses, but not by more than 10%, indicating the formulation did not induce infertility.

In a 2023 study, administration of C. borivilianum aqueous extract ameliorated persistent increases in oxidative stress and decreases in anti-oxidative enzyme levels in testes and sperm of mice following hydrogen peroxide pre-exposure; it also ameliorated deterioration in sperm parameters and testicular steroidogenesis, and restored serum FSH, LH, and testosterone levels near normal. In human sperm tested in vitro, CB helped to prevent deterioration in sperm parameters following H₂O₂ exposure, suggesting potential utility in preserving male fertility under high oxidative stress conditions.

Human Clinical Evidence

One published randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluated the effect of the water-soluble extract of C. borivilianum root tubers on semen and testosterone in healthy adult males aged 20–40. Water extracts or placebo were administered for 12 weeks in two divided doses of 500 mg, with assessment based on semen volume, liquefaction time, sperm count, sperm motility, and serum testosterone levels.

The trial drug did not exert a statistically significant effect on serum testosterone levels of volunteers, although improvements were better than in the placebo group. This was attributed to normal baseline testosterone levels in almost all volunteers, leaving little scope for improvement. The authors noted that a trial involving subjects with diminished serum testosterone might clarify its activity.

A separate clinical report indicated that C. borivilianum aqueous extract significantly increased semen parameters and serum testosterone in a clinical trial (Rath and Panja, 2013).

Evidence Assessment: The animal (rodent) data for spermatogenic and aphrodisiac effects are consistent across multiple independent studies. However, limited clinical data is available to establish the traditional claims, and existing human trials are small in scale. The available human evidence is preliminary and requires replication in larger, well-powered randomized controlled trials.

4.2 Immunomodulation

Ethanolic extract of the roots and its sapogenin were evaluated for immunomodulatory activity in rodent models. The effect of azathioprine-induced myelosuppression and administration of extracts on haematological and serological parameters was determined. Administration of extracts greatly improved survival against Candida albicans infection and produced an increase in delayed-type hypersensitivity response (DTH), percentage neutrophil adhesion, and in vivo phagocytosis by carbon clearance method. Immunostimulant activity of the ethanolic extract was more pronounced than that of isolated sapogenins.

For the polysaccharide fraction (CBP), testing showed significant stimulation of NK cell activity to be due to the CBP of C. borivilianum. Furthermore, in vivo evaluation in Wistar albino rats for humoral response to sheep red blood cells (SRBCs) and immunoglobulin-level determination using ELISA exhibited effectiveness of C. borivilianum aqueous extract in improving immune function.

The study provides some in vitro evidence and infers that the polysaccharide fraction is the most effective in augmenting NK cell activity as well as humoral immunity.

Evidence Assessment: Immunomodulatory activity is supported by multiple preclinical studies (in vitro and animal) across different extract fractions. The human NK cell data in the polysaccharide fraction study used human PBMCs ex vivo rather than a clinical trial of human subjects. No published randomized controlled clinical trials specifically examining immune endpoints in human patients were identified in the sources reviewed. Evidence remains preliminary.

4.3 Antidiabetic and Pancreatic Protective Effects

Several preclinical studies in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rat models have investigated C. borivilianum.

In one study, C. borivilianum root extract treatment in diabetic rats maintained near-normal body weight, blood glucose, HbA1c, lipid profile, and insulin levels with higher HOMA-β cell functioning index and lower HOMA-insulin resistance index compared to non-treated diabetic rats. Negative correlations between serum insulin and blood glucose, HbA1c, triglyceride, and total cholesterol levels were observed. Root extract administration also prevented the increase in lipid peroxidation and the decrease in activity levels of antioxidant enzymes SOD, CAT, and GPx, with mild histopathological changes in the pancreas.

The doses used in this model were 250 and 500 mg/kg/day of aqueous extract administered to STZ-induced diabetic male rats for 28 days.

C. borivilianum root aqueous extract prevented the decrease in sperm count, percentages of forward motility, viability, and HOS, and the increase in abnormal sperm percentage and caspase-3 level in diabetic rats. Sperm lipid peroxidation products, H₂O₂, and NO levels, fasting blood glucose, and HbA1c were lower, while antioxidant capacity and sperm density were higher in diabetic rats receiving the extract.

Evidence Assessment: Antidiabetic evidence is entirely from animal models (STZ-induced rodent diabetes). No controlled human clinical trials for blood glucose management by C. borivilianum were identified in the peer-reviewed sources reviewed. The preclinical data are promising but extrapolation to human diabetes management is not yet supported.

4.4 Hypolipidaemic Activity

The study examined the efficacy of C. borivilianum root powder in modulating hyperlipaemic/hypercholesterolaemic conditions in male albino rats; administration of 0.75 and 1.5 g root powder per rat per day for 4 weeks to hypercholesterolaemic rats significantly increased HDL-cholesterol levels and decreased plasma and hepatic lipid profiles. In addition, there were significant increases in faecal cholesterol, neutral sterol and bile acid excretion, with elevated hepatic HMG-CoA reductase activity and bile acid production. Hypercholesterolaemic rats treated with both doses also exhibited increases in superoxide dismutase and ascorbic acid levels.

Evidence Assessment: Hypolipidaemic evidence is limited to animal studies. No human clinical trials for lipid management with C. borivilianum were identified in reviewed sources.

4.5 Adaptogenic and Anti-stress Activity

The aqueous extract of C. borivilianum at 250 mg/kg for 7 days significantly reverted elevated levels of plasma glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, and serum corticosterone and also reduced ulcer index and adrenal gland weight comparably to the standard drug diazepam in rats. At 125 mg/kg orally, it showed a mild anti-stress activity.

Evidence Assessment: Anti-stress/adaptogenic claims rest on rodent pharmacological studies. No well-controlled human trials examining adaptogenic endpoints were identified.

4.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Saponins isolated from roots of Chlorophytum borivilianum have been reported to reduce acute and chronic inflammation and histone deacetylase. Additional preclinical evidence for anti-inflammatory activity is cited across multiple reviews, but this evidence is preclinical in nature and human evidence is absent in reviewed sources.

4.7 Radioprotective Effects on Testicular Tissue

Two forms of C. borivilianum extracts (CB alone and CB-silver nanoparticles) were administered at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight in Swiss albino male mice for 7 consecutive days; following 6 Gy gamma radiation, animals were observed for 30 days in four phases. This preclinical work examined the potential of C. borivilianum to mitigate radiation-induced testicular damage. Evidence is exclusively from animal experiments.

4.8 Antioxidant Activity

Under in vitro DPPH free radical scavenging assay and lipid peroxidation assay, the aqueous extract of C. borivilianum considerably inhibited, in a dose-dependent manner, DPPH free radicals and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, demonstrating significant antioxidant property.

For C. comosum specifically, the water fraction of methanolic leaf extract was found toxic to HeLa cells but not to Vero cells, with the water fraction exhibiting promising antitumor potential based on a high ratio of HeLa vs. Vero cytotoxicity. This work is purely in vitro and does not constitute clinical evidence for cancer treatment.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Chlorophytum

Based on the body of preclinical and limited clinical research reviewed, Chlorophytum — particularly C. borivilianum — has been investigated in relation to the following physiological systems and health areas:

Male Reproductive System: Spermatogenesis, sperm quality parameters (count, motility, viability), oligospermia, erectile dysfunction, libido, serum testosterone, FSH, and LH levels.
Endocrine System: Testosterone biosynthesis via StAR and 3β-HSD enzyme expression; pancreatic beta-cell function and insulin secretion in diabetic models; HbA1c; corticosterone regulation.
Immune System: NK cell activity; delayed-type hypersensitivity; neutrophil adhesion and phagocytosis; antibody (IgG) and haemagglutination (HA) titer responses.
Cardiovascular/Metabolic System: Plasma lipid profiles (total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, triglycerides); HMG-CoA reductase activity; bile acid metabolism.
Antioxidant Defense Systems: Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx); DPPH radical scavenging; lipid peroxidation inhibition.
Neuro-Endocrine Stress Axis: Corticosterone levels; adrenal gland weight; gastric ulcer index as stress markers.
Women's Reproductive/Postnatal Health: Galactagogue (lactation enhancement); postnatal recovery (traditional use).
Gastrointestinal System: Traditional use for diarrhea, dysentery; mucilage content as bulk-forming agent.

6. Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages appear in peer-reviewed sources reviewed for this article. These are research or traditional dosages — not recommended doses:

In a rat study of aphrodisiac and spermatogenic activity, oral doses of 125 mg/kg/day and 250 mg/kg/day of aqueous root extract were used.
For sapogenin and ethanolic extract spermatogenesis studies in rats, doses of 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg b.w. were administered.
In the human randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial, the water extract was administered for 12 weeks in two divided doses of 500 mg (total 1,000 mg per day).
C. borivilianum root aqueous extract at 250 and 500 mg/kg/day or glibenclamide at 600 μg/kg/day were administered to STZ-induced diabetic male rats for 28 consecutive days.
For hypolipidaemic effects in rats, doses of 0.75 and 1.5 g root powder per rat per day for 4 weeks were used in hypercholesterolaemic animals.
For anti-stress investigation in rats, aqueous extract at 250 mg/kg for 7 days was used.
For radioprotection studies in mice, C. borivilianum extract was administered at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight for 7 consecutive days.

7. Safety Considerations

Acute Toxicity — Animal Data

A toxicity study conducted according to OECD revised up-and-down procedure for acute toxicity testing (OECD Guideline 425) showed no signs of toxicity in tested animals up to a dose of 3,000 mg/kg/day.

In earlier studies on the plant, in vivo toxicity was evaluated and the extracts were found to be non-toxic even at a dose of 2 g per kilogram of body weight. Lack of cytotoxicity is an important attribute of Rasayana drugs, and this was validated in the case of C. borivilianum.

A toxicity assay using the ATPLite kit clearly suggested that the extracts and fractions from C. borivilianum were non-cytotoxic against P388 cells, a sensitive mouse cell line.

Semen Morphology Concern

After 54 days of study in rats, there was an increase in sperm abnormality (%) at both doses tested, but not more than 10%, indicating that the formulation did not induce infertility at those doses. The clinical significance of this finding in the context of human use remains unclear.

Adequacy of Safety Data

The studies available on toxicity, safety, and quality of Chlorophytum borivilianum are inadequate for providing information on commercial utilization. This assessment from a 2013 systematic review remains relevant, as large-scale formal human clinical safety studies have not been published.

Adulteration Risk

Due to its high economic value, Chlorophytum borivilianum has encountered a problem of adulteration with closely resembling medicinally inferior species. Adulteration of medicinally important Chlorophytum species (C. borivilianum, C. arundinaceum, C. laxum) with garden species (variegated form of C. comosum, C. capense) is an important concern. Identification of these species in herbal formulations is difficult on the basis of phenotypic characters alone. Adulterated products may not carry the same phytochemical profile, and the safety and efficacy data for C. borivilianum would not necessarily apply to adulterants.

Overall Evidence Characterization

The analysis of previous pharmacological investigations has suggested a lack of substantial scientific evidence in various studies, which do not stand the test of critical assessment. While some studies suggest potential benefits, more comprehensive and high-quality research is needed to confirm efficacy. The preponderance of evidence for all therapeutic areas except possibly spermatogenic effects remains at the preclinical (animal/in vitro) level, and the few published human clinical trials have been small and, in some endpoints, inconclusive.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Chlorophytum may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Chlorophytum may help support.

No body systems available.