Elemi

Synopsis

Elemi (Canarium luzonicum): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Botanical and Scientific Names

Canarium luzonicum, commonly known as Manila elemi or the elemi tree, is a large evergreen species in the family Burseraceae. It typically reaches heights of over 30 meters with a straight bole exceeding one meter in diameter, and bears alternate, pinnate leaves up to 30 centimeters long consisting of 5–9 leaflets. First described as Canarium luzonicum (Blume) A. Gray in 1854, the species belongs to the diverse genus Canarium, which comprises about 75–80 aromatic trees distributed across tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific.

The family Burseraceae is the same family that produces frankincense and myrrh. The tree is dioecious, producing small, unisexual flowers in panicles, and its habitat spans primary and secondary wet tropical forests at low to medium elevations across islands including Luzon, Mindanao, and the Visayas.

Etymology of the Name "Elemi"

The common name "elemi" for the resin produced by C. luzonicum stems from the Arabic phrase al-lāmi, literally meaning "the elemi," a term historically applied to various aromatic resins valued for their medicinal properties, including styptic effects in ancient treatments. Over time, "elemi" evolved from broad ancient references to resins used in medicine and rituals, becoming specifically associated with the Philippine C. luzonicum resin by the 19th century. Early European accounts created confusion around the name, with "elemi" in the 17th and 18th centuries often denoting resins from Brazilian trees of the genus Icica (now classified under Protium). In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term usually denoted a resin from trees of the genus Icica in Brazil, and before that it meant the resin derived from Boswellia frereana.

The genus name Canarium originates from the Malay term kĕnari, referring to the Java almond tree. The specific epithet luzonicum derives from "Luzon," the largest island in the Philippines, reflecting the species' native range in that region.

Related Species

Other species in the Canarium genus include another species endemic to the Philippines, Canarium ovatum (the second most exploited), Guinea and Cameroon's Canarium schweinfurthii, Australia's Canarium muelleri, and Madagascar's "ramy" or Canarium madagascariensis. C. luzonicum is by far the most important species for commercial production of Manila elemi.

The Resin: Physical Description and Chemistry

Elemi is more precisely an oleoresin, meaning a semi-solid extract composed of resin and essential oil (from the Latin oleum, meaning olive oil). Oleoresins are highly concentrated substances that appear in liquid form. Elemi resin is a pale yellow substance, of honey-like consistency, and is a fragrant resin with a sharp pine and lemon-like scent. The oleoresin contains resin and 12–30% essential oil.

The softer Manila elemi is of higher quality, reflecting its higher essential oil content compared with harder elemi types. As the freshly distilled oil is liable to resinify and polymerize on standing, distillation is normally carried out in the importing country where the oil can be formulated soon after preparation. A resinoid is also sometimes prepared by solvent extraction of the crude elemi.

2. Natural Source, Habitat, and Harvesting

The tree is indigenous to the lush rainforests of the Philippines, particularly the islands of Luzon and Mindanao. Since the end of the 1800s, the Philippines is the only country worldwide where important quantities of elemi are found.

Elemi resin is extracted from the tree's gum, which exudes naturally through cuts in the bark. The tree is widely harvested from the wild by local people and is also occasionally cultivated for its resin and edible seed. The plant is one of the best-known and single largest sources of the world's supply of elemi — a fragrant oleoresin with a range of food, medicinal, and industrial applications. A single tree produces approximately 4 to 5 kilograms of this resin.

Conservation Status

Many resin- and oleo-gum-resin-producing species face conservation challenges. The IUCN Red List includes Canarium luzonicum (elemi) alongside numerous Boswellia and Commiphora species. Overharvesting, habitat destruction, and climate change threaten these aromatic resources. As an endemic species, the global IUCN assessment informs national conservation efforts by the Philippine Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), which lists it as a threatened species under domestic regulations. Canarium luzonicum is not included in any appendices of CITES. The species faces significant threats primarily from habitat destruction driven by deforestation for agriculture and logging in the Philippines, where forest cover has declined from approximately 70% of the land area in 1900 to about 18% by the late 20th century.

3. Common Forms and Preparations

Elemi is commercially available and used in several distinct forms:

Crude oleoresin: Manila elemi is a soft and fragrant oleoresin, oily, pale yellow to greenish, of honey consistency, balsamic in odour, and bitter tasting.
Essential oil: Aromatic elemi oil is steam distilled from the resin. In commerce, the essential oil distilled from Manila elemi is mainly used for fragrance applications (such as soap and perfumes) and as a base for liniment.
Resinoid: A resinoid can be obtained by using a volatile solvent extraction method.
Industrial applications: Elemi resin is chiefly used commercially in varnishes and lacquers, and certain printing inks. Manila elemi still finds occasional use as an ingredient in lacquers and varnishes, where it gives toughness and elasticity to the dried film.
Food flavouring: A variety of foodstuffs is flavored with elemi oil in Europe.

4. Traditional and Historical Use

Ancient Egypt

The resin from the elemi tree was often burned as incense in rituals, symbolising purification and the presence of the divine, and was also incorporated into embalming mixtures. Its use in ancient Egypt for mummification highlights its preservative qualities and revered status, similar to frankincense from Boswellia frereana.

Philippines: Indigenous and Traditional Practice

Elemi has deep roots in the traditional medicine and culture of the Philippines. Indigenous communities have used elemi resin for generations, harnessing its therapeutic properties to soothe coughs, alleviate skin issues, and support respiratory health. In addition to its medicinal uses, elemi resin held a spiritual role in the Philippines.

In traditional Philippine medicine, the resin of Canarium luzonicum, known as elemi, has been employed as a styptic to staunch bleeding from wounds, as well as for treating burns and sores through direct application of the coagulated sap. The resin is also valued for its expectorant properties, traditionally used to alleviate bronchitis, coughs, and catarrh by inhaling vapors or incorporating it into herbal preparations. Topically, elemi resin has been applied in ointments to address skin lesions, abscesses, and other infections, leveraging its antiseptic and antifungal qualities documented in indigenous healing practices.

A corn-sized drop of the resin is taken with water in the treatment of fevers and chills. The oleoresin is applied externally to arthritic and rheumatic joints, boils, abscesses, furuncles, burns, and sores.

Similar to how frankincense was used in Christian and other traditions, elemi was used in religious ceremonies and rituals. The aromatic smoke produced by burning elemi resin was believed to purify spaces and invite positive energies. It was also used as an offering to the spirits and gods.

Among pre-colonial and indigenous communities in the Philippines, young shoots and leaves of C. luzonicum are boiled and consumed as a vegetable, providing a nutritious addition to local diets.

Traditional Internal Use

Oleoresin has been used as an ointment as a stomach stimulant and expectorant in traditional medicine.

Medieval Europe

During the Age of Exploration, elemi resin found its way to Europe, where it was highly valued for its medicinal properties. In medieval European apothecaries, elemi was often used as an antiseptic and a balm for wounds. Just like the more popular frankincense or myrrh, elemi (Manila elemi, Canarium luzonicum) has been used by humans for centuries as a component in ointments and plasters, and later in the making of paints and varnishes.

5. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Volatile Fraction (Essential Oil)

GC-MS analyses across multiple studies show the oil is dominated by monoterpenes: limonene (36–56%), alpha-phellandrene (12–18%), sabinene (4–6%), beta-phellandrene (~2%), p-cymene (~2%), and terpinolene (~1%). The sesquiterpene alcohol elemol (CAS 639-99-6, C₁₅H₂₆O, 6–17%) provides a quiet, woody-floral character. The phenylpropanoid elemicin (CAS 487-11-6, 3–10%) contributes a faint spicy-peppery character but also introduces regulatory complexity: a 2023 thirteen-week toxicity study (Al-Malahmeh et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 179) demonstrated that elemicin produces DNA adducts in rat liver even at 25 mg/kg bw/day via CYP1A1/1A2-mediated 1′-hydroxylation and subsequent sulfotransferase conjugation. Minor components include alpha-terpineol (~2.7%), methyl eugenol (up to 0.6%), and traces of terpinen-4-ol.

A study on the composition of Manila elemi essential oil from the distillation of elemi resin yielded 39 compounds, with the most abundant being phellandrene or limonene. Limonene in some tests reached 56%, while in other tests phellandrene was 25–28% or higher. These components change depending on where and when the tree was harvested and distilled.

The full list of documented constituents includes phellandrene, limonene, elemol, elemicin, terpineol, carvone, and terpinolene. One of the resin components is also identified as amyrin.

Individual Compound Profiles

Limonene: Limonene is also found abundantly in citrus oils. Known properties include supporting cellular health in humans and in petri dishes, acting as an antioxidant (in vitro), modulating blood sugar, and supporting immune function in animal studies.
Alpha-phellandrene: Alpha-phellandrene, a cyclic monoterpene, is noted for its antimicrobial effects.
Elemicin: Elemicin, a phenolic compound, has been reported to be antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and to have anti-proliferative characteristics. Elemicin is active against S. aureus, B. subtilis, and C. albicans (MICs = 600, 2,500, and 1,000 mg/L, respectively) but not E. coli, K. pneumoniae, or P. aeruginosa (MICs = >8,000 mg/L for all).
Elemol: Elemol, a sesquiterpene alcohol, has reported actions including anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic mechanisms.
Alpha-pinene: Alpha-pinene, another monoterpene present in the oil, has clinical data for immune-modulating and stress-relieving effects.

Structural Classification of the Resin

The principal constituents are phellandrene and limonene, with smaller amounts of elemol, elemicine, dipentene, and terpineol. The soft nature of elemi results in part from the large quantity of liquid sesquiterpenes. The compound elemicin was named after its discovery in the essential oil of Canarium luzonicum, the elemi plant.

6. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

The scientific evidence base for elemi is composed almost entirely of in vitro (cell culture) and, to a lesser extent, animal studies. No published randomised controlled trials or systematic reviews in human subjects were identified for elemi's therapeutic use. The following sections describe the existing research, its nature, and its limitations.

6.1 Antimicrobial Activity

Evidence level: In vitro only; no human clinical trials.

The chemical compositions and antibacterial and antiproliferative activities of four commercial essential oils from the Burseraceae family were identified in a published study on antiproliferative and antibacterial activities of commercial essential oil samples from Boswellia carteri, B. serrata, and two chemotypes of Canarium luzonicum. Chemical compositions were investigated using gas chromatography (GC) and GC-MS.

Three essential oil samples (Elemi-A, Elemi-B, and Frankincense-A) had minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values under 2 mg/mL against Bacillus subtilis and displayed noteworthy antibacterial activity. Additionally, Elemi-A had MIC values under 2 mg/mL against B. cereus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Elemi-B had MIC values under 2 mg/mL against P. aeruginosa.

A separate study investigated the chemical composition, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activity of essential oils including Canarium luzonicum (CLEO), Melaleuca leucadendron, and Amyris balsamifera. In this study, the main volatile compounds of the analyzed CLEO essential oil were limonene (36.38%), elemol (16.65%), α-phellandrene (12.18%), and elemicin (9.59%).

The oleoresin from the tree, as well as the oil obtained from it, has medicinal value in traditional systems and is described as antibacterial, antifungal, antiseptic, antispasmodic, and rubefacient. These characterizations, however, derive primarily from ethnobotanical records and in vitro laboratory data, not controlled human studies.

6.2 Antiproliferative and Anticancer Activity

Evidence level: In vitro (cell line studies) only; no human clinical trials.

A 2023 study published in the Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine determined the efficacy of Canarium commune (elemi) essential oil and nanoparticles by GC-FID/MS analysis. The antiproliferative effect of elemi EO and prepared nanoparticles on human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549) and normal fibroblast cells (CCD-19Lu) were determined by MTT test. Levels of TAS, TOS, CYCS, CASP3, TNF-α, and IL-6 were determined using ELISA, and BAX and Bcl-2 genes were studied with qRT-PCR. Limonene (53.7%), α-phellandrene (14.5%), and elemol (10.1%) were the major components identified. The study found that elemi EO and nanoparticles showed anticancer activity without damaging normal cells — though this result is in vitro only and does not establish clinical efficacy in humans.

In a separate study, elemi essential oil was tested at concentrations of 105, 210, 420, and 630 μg/mL for 24 hours. Cytotoxicity was determined by the MTT test. Results showed that elemi essential oil had cytotoxic activity against the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line, with an IC50 value of 214 ± 1.01 μg/mL. The authors concluded that research using molecular analyses to discover involved signaling pathways, and in vivo studies to support these activities, is still needed.

One elemi chemotype (Elemi-B) had MIC values under 2 mg/mL against P. aeruginosa, and both Elemi-B and one frankincense sample had dose-dependent and significant antiproliferative effects, with IC50 values of 266.7 μg/mL and 230 μg/mL, respectively, against PC3 prostate cancer cells. Only Elemi-B displayed a dose-dependent antiproliferative effect in LNCaP prostate cancer cells with an IC50 value of 235.4 μg/mL.

Elemicin has some anti-proliferative effects and tumoricidal effects against several human cell lines. These are all preclinical data.

6.3 Wound Healing and Skin Applications

Evidence level: Traditional/ethnobotanical records; very limited experimental data; no human clinical trials for elemi specifically.

The traditional use of elemi resin for wound healing and skin applications is well-documented across multiple ethnobotanical sources. In traditional Philippine medicine, the resin of Canarium luzonicum has been employed as a styptic to staunch bleeding from wounds, as well as for treating burns and sores through direct application of the coagulated sap.

Compared to the well-known Asian elemi (Canarium luzonicum), the essential oil extracted from the oleoresin of Canarium schweinfurthii, the African elemi, is almost not commercially available despite its potential uses in aromatherapy or pharmacology. A PMC-indexed study from 2022 examined the wound-healing potential of an oleoresin essential oil chemotype from the related species Canarium schweinfurthii, finding promising antimicrobial and healing-related properties. This provides indirect contextual evidence but does not directly apply to C. luzonicum in clinical settings.

6.4 Respiratory System

Evidence level: Traditional use records; no controlled human studies.

The resin is valued for its expectorant properties, traditionally used to alleviate bronchitis, coughs, and catarrh by inhaling vapors or incorporating it into herbal preparations. The compound dipentene and elemicine present in elemi are described as responsible for elemi being a strong antiseptic and for protecting wounds, as well as for its expectorant action. These claims are attributed to traditional use and compound-level reasoning rather than human clinical trials.

Elemi is used as a herbal medicine to treat bronchitis, catarrh, extreme coughing, mature skin, scars, stress, and wounds — classifications that reflect traditional and practitioner use, not outcomes from controlled studies.

6.5 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Evidence level: Compound-level in vitro and animal data; no human clinical trials for elemi specifically.

Elemicin has been reported to be anti-inflammatory, and elemol actions include anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic mechanisms. These mechanistic attributions derive from studies of isolated compounds, not from trials of the whole elemi preparation in human subjects.

Pharmacological studies conducted on essential oils and plant material extracts of Canarium species have revealed potential antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-cancer activities, in line with numerous identifications of secondary metabolites including terpenoids, steroids, glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and tannins. These findings concern the broader Canarium genus, and the degree to which they translate to C. luzonicum elemi specifically requires species-specific verification.

6.6 Flavouring and Fragrance

The resin is used in foods as incense and for varnishing purposes, and a variety of foodstuffs is flavoured with elemi oil in Europe. In the fragrance industry, elemi is a spicy top-heart note with peppery, lemony, and incense-like facets used to bring freshness to fragrances.

7. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Elemi

Integumentary (skin) system: Wound healing, burns, abscesses, skin lesions, scarring, and aging skin — predominantly documented through traditional use and in vitro antimicrobial data.
Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, cough, and expectorant use — documented through traditional medicine across multiple Philippine sources.
Musculoskeletal system: The oleoresin is applied externally to arthritic and rheumatic joints.
Immune and infectious disease: Antiseptic and antibacterial properties documented in vitro; traditional use for fevers.
Oncology (preclinical only): Antiproliferative activity observed in lung adenocarcinoma (A549), breast cancer (MDA-MB-231), and prostate cancer (PC3, LNCaP) cell lines in vitro.
Digestive system: Oleoresin has been used as a stomach stimulant in traditional medicine.

8. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

No standardized clinical dosage has been established for elemi in any therapeutic category, as no human clinical trials have been completed. The following dosages and forms are reported from sources exclusively as used in in vitro studies or traditional practice:

A corn-sized drop of the resin taken with water is the traditional dosage for treatment of fevers and chills.
In the 2023 Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine in vitro study, the antiproliferative effect of elemi EO and prepared nanoparticles on human lung adenocarcinoma (A549) cells was determined by the MTT test. The 24-hour IC50 value for Elemi EO against A549 cells was measured at 1,199 μg/mL.
In the breast cancer cell study, elemi was tested at concentrations of 105, 210, 420, and 630 μg/mL for 24 hours, with an IC50 of 214 ± 1.01 μg/mL against MDA-MB-231 cells.
In MIC-based antibacterial testing, Elemi EO samples had MIC values under 2 mg/mL against Bacillus subtilis, and selected chemotypes demonstrated MIC values under 2 mg/mL against B. cereus and P. aeruginosa.
In perfumery and cosmetics, Tisserand and Young state that elemi oil may contain methyl eugenol, and their dermal maximum recommendation based on the possibility of 0.3% methyl eugenol content is 6.7%.
In a 13-week toxicology study in rats, groups of 10 male rats were treated with elemicin by gavage at doses of 0, 25, 100, or 400 mg/kg bw/day. Liver weights were significantly increased with histopathological changes in groups receiving 100 mg/kg bw/day or more, and significant increases in serum hepatotoxic parameters were observed in the 400 mg/kg bw/day group.

9. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Elemicin: Genotoxicity and Hepatotoxicity (Rodent Data)

Elemicin, an alkenylbenzene flavoring that exists naturally in foods, herbs, and spices, is a constituent of concern because some alkenylbenzenes are hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic in rodents. Few studies have examined the toxicology of elemicin specifically.

A 2023 thirteen-week toxicity study (Al-Malahmeh et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 179) demonstrated that elemicin produces DNA adducts in rat liver even at 25 mg/kg bw/day via CYP1A1/1A2-mediated 1′-hydroxylation and subsequent sulfotransferase conjugation. Based on the observed changes in liver weights, 18.6 mg/kg bw was identified as the low benchmark dose.

Elemicin is toxic to mice following metabolic activation to 1′-hydroxyelemicin by the cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoforms CYP1A1 and CYP1A2. It increases plasma and hepatic triglyceride levels, decreases stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (Scd1) expression, and induces hepatomegaly in mice when administered at a dose of 500 mg/kg per day for three weeks.

Alkenylbenzenes represent a group of naturally occurring substances synthesized as secondary metabolites in various plants including nutmeg and basil. Many alkenylbenzene-containing plants are common spice plants. However, many alkenylbenzenes are known toxicants. Safrole and methyleugenol were classified as genotoxic carcinogens based on extensive toxicological evidence. In contrast, reliable toxicological data regarding genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity is missing for several closely related alkenylbenzenes such as myristicin and elemicin.

Because elemicin showed no mutagenicity at lower doses, there was an adequate safety margin between the acceptable daily intake and the estimated daily intake of elemicin — though this pertains to dietary exposure scenarios studied in Japan, not therapeutic supplementation.

Methyl Eugenol

Tisserand and Young state that elemi oil may contain methyl eugenol, a phenylpropanoid ether. Their dermal maximum recommendation based on the possibility of 0.3% methyl eugenol content is 6.7%. They warn about avoiding use of the oil altogether if it has oxidized.

Cosmetic Use Limits

In high doses, elemicin can cause irritation, so its concentration in cosmetics does not exceed 1%.

Oxidation and Storage

The optical rotation of elemi essential oil and the fresh resin changes if stored in sunlight, and care should be taken to keep either in a dark container. Oxidized essential oils of this type present increased sensitization risk.

Adulteration

Elemi is often adulterated with the addition of α-phellandrene and limonene. This is relevant to anyone seeking standardized preparations for research or consistent therapeutic application.

Species Conservation

C. luzonicum is classified in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as "Vulnerable A1cd," which means there has been a reduction of at least 80% of the species over the last 10 years or 3 generations, due to a decline in the area of occupancy, extent of occurrence, or quality of habitat and the actual levels of exploitation.

Summary of Evidence Strength

Direct clinical evidence for elemi's efficacy in human use remains sparse; its traditional uses and promising phytochemical profile provide a foundation for further research. As an ingredient in modern products, elemi is generally regarded as safe when used in moderate amounts. All therapeutic claims currently rest on ethnobotanical records, in vitro antimicrobial/antiproliferative assays, and rodent toxicology studies. No randomised controlled trials, Phase I/II clinical trials, or systematic reviews in humans have been published for elemi as a therapeutic agent.