Indian fagonia

Indian Fagonia (Fagonia indica Burm.f.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Nomenclature, and Common Names

1.1 Taxonomy and Botanical Names

The accepted botanical name of Indian fagonia is Fagonia indica Burm.f. It belongs to the family Zygophyllaceae, of which Fagonia is an important genus. The genus Fagonia includes about 35 species distributed in deserts and dry areas in India, tropical Africa, Chile, and the southwestern United States. The species designation "indica" reflects its strong association with the Indian subcontinent, though its distribution extends considerably beyond it. Within the broader scientific literature, Indian fagonia is closely related to — and sometimes confused with — Fagonia cretica L. and Fagonia arabica L., species that share overlapping geography, chemistry, and traditional use. The correct name for the Indian species has also been debated, with some authorities listing it as related to Fagonia arabica Linn., and the correct name for the Indian species according to the Central Drug Research Institute being Fagonia schweinfurthii Hadidi.

1.2 Common Names Across Languages and Traditions

It is commonly known as Dhamasa, Dhamana, Sachi booti, and Shoka'a and is found in deserts of Asia and Africa. Across regional languages it carries a range of names: in English it is called "Khorasan thorn"; in Hindi, Damahan, Dhamaasa, and Hinguaa; in Sanskrit, Duhsparsa, Duralambha, and Dhanvyasakah; in Punjabi, Dama and Dhamah; in Bengali, Duralabha; in Gujarati, Dhamaaso; in Malayalam, Kodittuva; in Marathi, Dhamaasaa; in Tamil, Tulganari; and in Telugu, Chittigava. Additional Sanskrit synonyms recorded in classical Ayurvedic literature include Dhanvayaasa, Dhanvayavaasa, Duraalabhaa, Samudraantaa, Gaandhaari, Kachhuraa, and Anantaa.

1.3 Morphology and Natural Habitat

Fagonia indica (family Zygophyllaceae) is a small spiny under-shrub, mostly found in the deserts of Asia and Africa. It is a small spiny under-shrub with stiff, more or less prostrate branches, found in north-west India and Deccan. It is known for its ability to thrive in extremely arid and semi-arid regions, often growing in rocky and desert-like terrains where few other plants can survive. It is widely distributed in the Indian subcontinent, particularly in Punjab, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Fagonia species also occur in dry washes, ditches, and on rocky outcrops, including at altitude.

1.4 Common Preparations and Forms

Indian fagonia is used in several distinct preparation forms. In traditional medicine, the whole plant — including aerial parts (stems, leaves, and fruits) — is the primary material employed. It is a small spiny shrub of great ethnopharmacological importance in folk medicine; the aqueous decoction of aerial parts is a popular remedy against various skin lesions, including cancer. In Ayurvedic classical practice, decoction of the plant is used for sprinkling or bathing to treat skin diseases like eczema and fever, and cold infusion of the plant is consumed in a dose of 50 ml to treat nausea and diarrhea. In laboratory and pharmacological research, preparations have included hydroalcoholic extracts, methanolic extracts, ethanolic extracts, ethyl acetate fractions, n-butanol fractions, and aqueous fractions prepared from dried, powdered plant material.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ayurvedic Medicine (India)

Fagonia species have been used ethnobotanically by traditional practitioners under Ayurvedic and other traditional medicine healing regimes for many maladies, and species occur in deserts, dry washes, and rocky outcrops. Ayurveda is a branch of Indian science dealing with medicine, herbalism, and related topics, and its traditional practice in ancient India dates back to at least the first millennium BC, with literature commonly written in Sanskrit.

In Ayurvedic classical literature, Dhamasa is described as Madhura (sweet), Tikta (bitter), and Katu (pungent) in taste, with cold potency (Sheeta Virya) and Laghu and Sara qualities. It is a useful herb to treat Kaphaja and Medaja disorders and is used in various skin disorders, including conditions described as Trishnaa, Visarpa, and Jwara. In Indian traditional medicine it was regarded as astringent, antiseptic, a blood-purifier, and febrifuge. It was applied to abscesses, scrofulous glands, and wounds, and was also given as a prophylactic against smallpox.

The plant is included in classical Ayurvedic compound formulations. For example, it is an ingredient in Ushirasava, a liquid Ayurvedic medicine used in treating bleeding disorders, skin diseases, and inflammation, as well as in Pushkaramoolasava, a formulation used in treating chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder and bronchitis.

2.2 Unani Medicine

Fagonia arabica, commonly known as "Dhamasa," is revered in Ayurveda for its multifaceted medicinal properties and widely used in South Asia and the Middle East, serving as a staple in traditional medicine systems such as Ayurveda and Unani. In Unani medicine this herb is used as a blood purifier and to supplement cancer treatment.

2.3 Folk and Ethnobotanical Uses Across Regions

In folk medicine, it is claimed to be used for the treatment of vomiting, dysentery, stomach and liver problems, fever, thirst, asthma, typhoid, urinary discharges, toothache, and to reduce swellings of the neck and tumors. Traditionally, various species of this genus are used as aqueous or alcoholic tincture for treatment of diabetes, fever, asthma, toothache, stomach pain, and kidney problems. Fagonia has been used traditionally for the treatment of menstrual problems for thousands of years, and practitioners of traditional medicine have used this plant for the treatment of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) in different areas of Pakistan. An aqueous decoction of aerial parts of this plant is also used traditionally to induce abortion and as a remedy to cure cancer at early stages.

Studies on the phenolic content, antioxidant properties, and antibacterial capabilities of the methanolic extract of Fagonia indica have validated its folkloric use as medicine by Bedouin communities in the Hail region of Saudi Arabia.

2.4 Traditional Dosage Forms

In Ayurvedic practice, the dried powder of the plant is taken in a dose of 5 g mixed with milk to improve health in conditions of general debility. The whole plant part is used, with traditional powder doses of 5 to 10 g and decoction doses of 40 to 50 ml.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Overview of Phytochemical Classes

Among all species within the genus, Fagonia indica has gained global interest due to its variety of active phytochemical constituents, including tannins, flavonoids, sterols, coumarins, alkaloids, triterpenoids, saponins, glycosides, and pectin. The presence of flavonoids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, pectin, and alkaloids has been confirmed by multiple independent researchers.

3.2 Flavonoids

Four flavonoidal compounds identified as quercetin, isorhamnetin-α-3-O rhamnoside, quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1″-6‴)-β-D-glucopyranoside, and a quercetin galactopyranosyl-acetyl-rhamnose-glucopyranoside were for the first time isolated from the ethyl acetate and n-butanol soluble fractions of the alcoholic extract of Fagonia indica Burm.f., in addition to oleanolic acid, β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside, and stigmasterol 3-O-β-D-glucoside. Flavonoids amounted to 3% as estimated colorimetrically using aluminum chloride. Fagonia indica possesses quercetin as one of the major flavonoid phytoconstituents.

3.3 Triterpenoids and Saponins

Several triterpenes and saponins have been reported from this genus, including nahagenin, betulic acid, hederagenin, ursolic acid, and various dihydroxy-taraxer-20-en-28-oic acid glycosides and 3-sulfate esters of dihydroxyolean-12-ene derivatives. These bioactivities were attributed to the presence of a variety of active ingredients including triterpenoidal saponins, flavonol glycosides, and ursolic and oleanolic acids, either alone or with their derivatives.

A key study published in PubMed used mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy to purify several compounds from F. indica extract, identifying quinovic acid (QA), which strongly suppressed the growth and viability of human breast and lung cancer cells.

Using a biological activity-guided fractionation approach on three cancer cell lines — MCF-7 estrogen-dependent breast cancer, MDA-MB-468 estrogen-independent breast cancer, and Caco-2 colon cancer cells — a new steroidal saponin glycoside was isolated from the EtOAc fraction of F. indica through chromatographic and spectroscopic procedures.

3.4 Alkaloids

Research has revealed that Dhamasa contains chinovic acid, harmine, and several amino acids including alanine, arginine, glycine, and lysine, as well as Genin A & B, fagonin, and oleanolic acid.

3.5 Additional Compounds Identified by GC–MS

GC–MS analysis of methanolic extract of Fagonia indica from the Hail Mountains, Saudi Arabia, identified 2-chloropropanoic acid (18.5%), tetrahydro-2-methylfuran (20.1%), tridecanoic acid-12-methyl methyl ester (2.2%), hexadecanoic acid methyl ester (8.6%), methyl 3-(3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl) propionate (13.4%), methyl linoleate (7.0%), petroselinic acid methyl ester (15%), erucylamide (6.7%), and diosgenin (8.5%). The compounds identified were primarily plant fatty acids, carbohydrates, and sterols.

A more recent 2026 study using GC–MS found additional diversity between extract types: phytochemical profiling identified 19 compounds in the crude methanolic extract and 11 in the aqueous fraction; predominant constituents in the methanolic extract included n-hexadecanoic acid, octadecanoic acid, phytol, and 2-butoxyethanol, while the aqueous fraction was rich in 4-O-methylmannose, thiocyanic acid ethyl ester, and thiophene derivatives.

3.6 Sterols and Diterpenes

The aerial parts contain several triterpenoid saponins which yield sapogenin, nahagenin, and oleanolic acid, along with diterpenes, fagonone and its derivatives, and flavonoids. The fruits are notably rich in ascorbic acid.

3.7 Mineral and Elemental Composition

Studies have hypothesized that seasons and geography affect the elemental composition of Fagonia indica. Plant material sampled from six hilly geographical sites of Sindh (Pakistan) during spring and summer was analyzed through ICP-OES to examine elemental variation.

4. Established Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Anticancer Mechanisms

Quinovic acid (QA) purified from F. indica strongly suppressed the growth and viability of human breast and lung cancer cells but did not inhibit growth of non-tumorigenic breast cells. QA mediated its anticancer effects by inducing cell death associated with biochemical features of apoptosis, including activation of caspases 3 and 8 and PARP cleavage. QA also upregulated mRNA and protein levels of death receptor 5 (DR5) by enhancing DR5 mRNA and protein stabilities, rather than altering DR5 gene promoter activity. DR5 is a major component of the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis, and Apo2L/TRAIL (the DR5 ligand) potentiated the anticancer effects of QA, indicating that QA mediates its anticancer effects, at least in part, by engaging the DR5-dependent pathway to induce apoptosis.

The cytotoxic activity of an isolated steroidal saponin glycoside was determined in cancer cells using MTT and neutral red uptake assays; after 24-hour treatment, observed IC₅₀ values of the saponin glycoside were 12.5 μM on MDA-MB-468 and Caco-2 cells, but 100 μM on MCF-7 cells.

Palmitic acid from Fagonia indica was found in silico molecular docking studies to virtually inhibit Cyclin Dependent Kinase 2 (CDK2).

A 2025 study assessed antiproliferative effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of an ethanolic extract of Fagonia cretica against colorectal (HCT-116) and prostate (PC3) cancer cell lines using in vitro cell viability assays. The study reported mechanisms including DNMT1 downregulation, oxidative stress induction, and ER-beta activation.

4.2 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Anti-inflammatory activity has been validated through in vitro COX-2, COX-1, and nitric oxide inhibition assays. These mechanisms are consistent with the flavonoid and triterpenoid content of the plant, as quercetin and oleanolic acid are known inhibitors of cyclooxygenase and pro-inflammatory mediators.

4.3 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Total phenols, total tannins, flavonoids, DPPH, reducing power, beta-carotene, and ABTS IC₅₀ scavenging activity measurements have confirmed that Fagonia indica exhibits prominent antioxidant properties at low concentrations when compared to ascorbic acid, butylated hydroxytoluene, and beta-carotene. Pharmacological evaluation of extracts also revealed dose-dependent inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), indicating neuroprotective potential; the methanolic extract exhibited DPPH IC₅₀ of 222 μg/mL and ABTS IC₅₀ of 230 μg/mL.

4.4 Hepatoprotective Mechanisms

In a thioacetamide-induced hepatic injury mouse model, the hepatoprotective potential of Fagonia indica was demonstrated through regulation of inflammatory and innate immunity-related Toll-Like Receptor (TLR) pathways.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Anticancer Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro and in silico); no human clinical trials.

Fagonia indica has been recently investigated by numerous researchers because of its striking therapeutic potential especially in cancer. Aerial parts of Fagonia indica Burm are used as a remedy for tumors, and leaf and twigs are used for cancer.

The most mechanistically detailed study to date is a PubMed-indexed paper (2020) on quinovic acid: the authors propose that QA in combination with Apo2L/TRAIL can be further investigated as a novel therapeutic approach for breast and lung cancers. This is a cell-line study only.

In a study examining antimutagenic, cytotoxic, and anticancer potential, Fagonia indica showed significant antimutagenic potential in the Ames test with IC₅₀ values of 146.33±5.2 μg/mL (TA100 spontaneous), 105.33±4.0 μg/mL (TA100, azide), 113.6±5.2 μg/mL (TA98, 2AA), and 112.6±4.4 μg/mL (TA98, azide). On HepG-2 cell lines, the 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC₅₀) was recorded as 128.3±2.43 μg/mL. On A549 lung epithelial cells, the extract demonstrated maximum cytotoxic effect at 30 hours.

The alcoholic extract of the plant evaluated for cytotoxic activity against three human carcinoma cell lines exhibited good inhibitory activity against MCF-7 cell line, followed by HepG2 and CACO2, compared to doxorubicin. Cytotoxic activity was demonstrated against MCF-7, HepG2, and CACO2 cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 6.9±0.53, 7.6±0.42, and 9.2±0.35 μg/mL respectively, which was supported by in vitro topoisomerase I inhibition (IC₅₀ = 13.57±0.71 μg/mL) and caspase 9 induction by 5.66 folds.

Lam et al. declared that F. cretica aqueous extract manifested anticancer potential on breast cancer cell lines through DNA damage induction. Fagonia cretica is a traditionally used medicinal plant in many cultures for the management of cancer and other ailments; however, systematic scientific evaluation of its anticancer efficacy and mechanisms remains limited.

Limitation: All anticancer evidence is derived from in vitro cell line studies and in silico molecular docking analyses. No animal tumor model studies, let alone human clinical trials, have been published for Fagonia indica as a defined anticancer therapy. The evidence remains preliminary and hypothesis-generating.

5.2 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

Evidence level: In vitro and animal models; no human clinical trials.

The analgesic activity of the alcoholic extract of Fagonia indica was tested using the writhing test and the hot-plate test, with acetylsalicylic acid (200 mg/kg, i.p.) and morphine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) as reference drugs. Pharmacological testing has confirmed the plant's anti-inflammatory activity. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity was validated through COX-2, COX-1, and nitric oxide inhibition.

Limitation: Anti-inflammatory and analgesic evidence is restricted to preclinical models (animal and in vitro). There are no randomized controlled trials in humans.

5.3 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence level: In vitro; consistent across multiple studies.

Qualitative chemical screening of methanolic extract confirmed the presence of saponins, terpenes, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, and cardiac glycosides. GC–MS identified multiple phytochemicals, and the plant exhibited prominent antioxidant properties at low concentrations when compared to standard antioxidants including ascorbic acid, butylated hydroxytoluene, and beta-carotene. The antibacterial activity of the extract may be explained by the presence of saponins, flavonoids, and alkaloids.

Pharmacological evaluation in a 2026 study revealed dose-dependent inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), indicating neuroprotective potential, while antioxidant assays showed that the methanolic extract exhibited radical scavenging activity with an IC₅₀ of 222 μg/mL for DPPH and 230 μg/mL for ABTS.

5.4 Antimicrobial Activity

Evidence level: In vitro; no clinical trials.

An antibacterial investigation of Fagonia indica grown in the Hail Mountains revealed significant inhibitory effects against Bacillus subtilis MTCC121 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 741 with inhibition zones of 15.00±1.5 and 12.0±1.0 mm, respectively. The MIC and MBC ranged between 125 and 500 μg/mL. The MBC/MIC ratio indicated possible bactericidal efficacy against B. subtilis and bacteriostatic activity against P. aeruginosa. The study also showed that this plant has anti-biofilm formation activity.

A 2023 study in ScienceDirect examined synergistic potential: F. indica was studied as a synergistic remedy against resistant bacterial strains; phytochemicals were quantified by Total Phenolic Content, Total Flavonoid Content, and RP-HPLC, and after establishing an antibacterial resistance profile, synergism was evaluated in combination with cefixime through time-kill kinetics and bacterial protein estimation studies. Topographic images depicting synergism were obtained by scanning electron microscopy for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and resistant Escherichia coli.

Limitation: All antimicrobial evidence is in vitro. No clinical infection trials exist.

5.5 Hepatoprotective Activity

Evidence level: Animal studies; no human clinical trials.

Studies evaluated hepatoprotective effects of ethanol and hexane extracts of F. cretica against CCl₄-induced hepatotoxicity in 35 Wistar albino rats divided across five experimental groups. Hepatotoxicity was induced in groups II–V with CCl₄, while groups III and IV received plant extracts and group V received cisplatin as standard drug. Results showed the hepatoprotective effects of ethanol and hexane extracts, as demonstrated by normalized liver enzyme levels (ALT, AST).

Using a thioacetamide-induced hepatic injury mouse model, the hepatoprotective potential of Fagonia indica was confirmed through regulation of inflammatory and innate immunity-related TLR pathways.

Limitation: Hepatoprotective findings are from chemically induced animal models and do not directly translate to human liver disease contexts.

5.6 Antidiabetic Activity

Evidence level: Animal and in vitro studies; no human clinical trials specific to F. indica.

Pharmacological testing has confirmed the plant's antidiabetic activity. Closely related Fagonia olivieri, which shares geography and similar phytochemistry, has been studied in more mechanistic detail: a study demonstrated that F. olivieri aqueous extract inhibited activity of digestive enzymes and exhibited antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antihyperglycemic activity in STZ-nicotinamide-prompted diabetic rats, suggesting it might be used as a therapeutic agent. The aqueous fraction was evaluated in a 21-day chronic multiple dose study using glibenclamide (10 mg/kg) as reference, at concentrations of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg in streptozotocin-induced diabetic Sprague-Dawley rats.

Limitation: Antidiabetic data for F. indica specifically is sparse; much of the best-characterized data comes from the closely related F. olivieri. No human trials exist.

5.7 Thrombolytic Activity

Evidence level: In vitro; exploratory only.

An in vitro thrombolytic model was used to check the clot lysis effect of six aqueous herbal extracts; Fagonia arabica showed 75.6% clot lysis in this in vitro model, the highest of all six herbs tested, compared to streptokinase as positive control. This result, published in BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies (2007), was exploratory and conducted using commercially available multi-solvent extracts. Thrombolytic activity of this plant was also reported in human umbilical cord cells using thrombin-inducing tissue plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1.

Limitation: In vitro clot lysis does not predict clinical antithrombotic efficacy. No human trials have been conducted.

5.8 Reproductive and Hormonal Effects (PCOS)

Evidence level: Animal study only.

A study investigated the effectiveness of ethanolic extract of Fagonia indica in letrozole-induced PCOS young adult female rats. Experimental groups included a positive PCOS control, a metformin 20 mg/kg group, a Fagonia indica ethanolic extract 500 mg/kg group, and a combined metformin plus Fagonia extract group. The plant extract exhibited beneficial effects by restoring hormonal balance, lipid profile, and liver functioning markers. Treatment with F. indica reduced body weight, resolved ovarian cysts, showed positive effects on follicular growth, and increased levels of antioxidant enzymes. The study concluded it validates the potential of Fagonia indica for the amelioration of metabolic and hormonal disturbances in PCOS.

Limitation: This is an animal (rat) model study; results cannot be extrapolated to human PCOS patients without clinical trials.

5.9 Nephroprotective Activity

Evidence level: Animal study only.

Fagonia indica is an herbal medicine with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity; a study evaluated its protective role in attenuating chromium-induced nephrotoxicity in Swiss mice, with animals divided into five groups of 10 mice each. Mice intoxicated with chromium at 15 mg/kg showed a decrease in superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) levels compared to controls, and treatment with F. indica attenuated these changes.

Limitation: Nephroprotective findings are from a heavy metal toxicity model in mice and do not address human kidney disease.

5.10 Neuroprotective Activity

Evidence level: In vitro and in silico; preliminary.

Pharmacological evaluation revealed dose-dependent inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), indicating neuroprotective potential. For the closely related Fagonia arabica, ischemic injury characterized by impaired energy status was favorably responded to by the plant extract, offering considerable neuroprotection from ischemia and helping to maintain cellular viability and mitochondrial integrity of PC12 cells. Strong scientific data suggests that this plant should be studied in therapeutic trials for its neuroprotective properties.

Limitation: All neuroprotective data is from cell-line assays and in silico modeling. No animal or human studies have been conducted specifically for neurological endpoints.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Indian Fagonia

• Oncology: Anticancer and antimutagenic activity studied in breast, lung, colon, liver, cervical, colorectal, and prostate cancer cell lines.
• Hepatic system: Hepatoprotective effects demonstrated against chemically induced liver injury in animal models; TLR pathway modulation identified as one mechanism.
• Immune/Inflammatory system: COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition; nitric oxide suppression; anti-inflammatory activity confirmed in animal models.
• Cardiovascular/Hematological system: Thrombolytic activity demonstrated in vitro; traditional use as blood purifier in Unani medicine.
• Endocrine/Reproductive system: Hormonal restoration and anti-PCOS effects in rodent model; historical use for menstrual disorders.
• Renal system: Nephroprotection against chromium-induced nephrotoxicity in mice.
• Nervous system: Cholinesterase inhibition (AChE, BChE); in vitro neuroprotection against ischemia-reperfusion in PC12 cells.
• Gastrointestinal system: Thiophene derivatives in the aqueous fraction are associated with modulation of intestinal motility. Traditional uses include treatment of vomiting, diarrhea, and dysentery.
• Dermatological system: Traditional topical use for skin diseases, abscesses, and wounds; some wound-healing research in related species.
• Respiratory system: In Hindu traditional medicine contexts, Fagonia cretica has been utilized medicinally, specifically in respiratory treatments.
• Metabolic/Diabetic: Alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase inhibition studied in related species; antidiabetic effects in rodent models.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are reported directly from identified sources and are not recommendations:

• Traditional Ayurvedic powder: Dried powder taken at 5 g mixed with milk for general debility; powder dose range of 5–10 g; decoction 40–50 ml.
• Traditional cold infusion: Cold infusion of the plant consumed in a dose of 50 ml to treat nausea and diarrhea.
• Rodent antidiabetic study (related species F. olivieri): Aqueous fraction used at concentrations of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg in STZ-induced diabetic Sprague-Dawley rats over 21 days, with glibenclamide (10 mg/kg) as comparator.
• PCOS rat study: Ethanolic extract of Fagonia indica at 500 mg/kg in a letrozole-induced PCOS rat model, compared against metformin 20 mg/kg.
• Hepatoprotective study (F. cretica): Methanolic and water extracts of F. cretica at oral dose of 400 mg/kg showed highly significant (p<0.01) hepatoprotective effect in CCl₄-induced liver damage in Wistar albino rats.
• Acute toxicity assessment: Acute toxicity assessment in pigeons confirmed safety of both methanolic extract and aqueous fraction at doses up to 2 g/kg body weight.

8. Safety Considerations

8.1 Acute Toxicity Data

The toxicological determination of LD₅₀ was found to be greater than 5000 mg/kg, estimated by statistical software based on long-term outcomes of Fagonia cretica ethanolic extract. This indicates a wide safety margin for the ethanolic extract. Acute toxicity assessment in pigeons confirmed safety of both methanolic extract and aqueous fraction of F. indica at doses up to 2 g/kg.

8.2 Abortifacient Potential

An aqueous decoction of aerial parts of this plant is used traditionally to induce abortion. This traditional use as an abortifacient, combined with the absence of safety data in pregnant women, constitutes a critical documented concern. The use of Dhamasa during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided.

8.3 Species Authentication and Adulteration

Commercial Fagonia products available should be viewed with caution because there is little to no authentication as to the species contained, based on DNA analysis. It may be that all Fagonia species contain similar medicinal compounds, but this has not been established. Research carried out at Quaid-i-Azam University in Pakistan found that three Pakistani Fagonia species were represented in commercial Fagonia (Dhamasa) products in the Islamabad marketplace. Plant systematists caution that species other than Fagonia, as well as other unrelated material, can be present in commercial preparations.

8.4 Absence of Formal Clinical Safety Data

Further studies are still required to evaluate this plant in clinical trials in order to establish its safety and efficacy profile in human populations. Preliminary studies have reported the hepatoprotective effect of Fagonia indica; however, mechanisms of action and the molecular pathways involved are still not fully explored. No systematic drug-interaction studies for F. indica with pharmaceutical drugs appear in peer-reviewed literature as of 2026.

8.5 Elemental Variability

The elemental composition of Fagonia indica varies with season and geography, as demonstrated by studies sampling plant material from six hilly geographical sites of Sindh Province during spring and summer, analyzed through ICP-OES. This variability in mineral content across populations means that standardization of preparations is a material concern for consistent and safe use.

9. Current State of Evidence and Research Gaps

Strong scientific data suggests that this plant should be studied in therapeutic trials for its antibacterial and antioxidant (neuroprotective and anticancer) properties, as well as its other properties; additional research is needed to extract and pinpoint the responsible bioactive elements in this plant. The entire pharmacological evidence base for Fagonia indica as of 2026 remains preclinical. All identified biological activities — anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, antidiabetic, thrombolytic, and hormonal — have been demonstrated exclusively in cell lines, animal models, or in silico systems. Researchers, particularly in the Asian region, have elaborately studied the chemical composition and pharmacological activities of this plant, but further studies are still required to evaluate it in clinical trials. No human randomized controlled trials, phase I/II safety studies, or pharmacokinetic studies in humans have been published in peer-reviewed journals.

References

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• Waheed et al. (2012). A novel steroidal saponin glycoside from Fagonia indica induces cell-selective apoptosis or necrosis in cancer cells. PubMed.
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• Javed et al. (2022). Effects of Fagonia indica on Letrozole-Induced Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) in Young Adult Female Rats. PMC.
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