Lovage

Lovage (Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch)

1. Identity, Botanical Classification, and Natural Source

Levisticum officinale (lovage) is a perennial aromatic plant belonging to the family Apiaceae. It is a perennial plant that grows easily and possesses an umami-like taste and a celery-like flavour, a quality that has earned it the colloquial name "Maggi plant" in parts of continental Europe. Lovage is a 1 to 2 m high herbaceous perennial with a strong taproot; its two- to three-pinnate leaves sit on a thick, tubular basal axis, the lower leaflets being up to 70 cm long and 65 cm wide, shiny dark green, and triangular-rhombic in shape. The small, pale-yellow flowers are borne in large 12 to 20-rayed, domed double umbels.

The plant is considered to have originated in Liguria (Latin ligusticus = Ligurian), and underwent various name alterations early on, including transformations in Medieval Latin to levisticum, livisticum, and lubisticum, the last of which may have given rise to the common English name "lovage." The species epithet officinale signals its ancient medicinal status, as officina denotes the salesroom of a pharmacy, and officinale means commonly used in pharmacy.

The plant is also known under numerous synonyms and common names. These include Ache des Montagnes, Angélique de Montagne, Apio de Monte, Céleri Perpétuel, Herbe à Maggi, Hipposelinum levisticum, Lavose, Levistici Radix, Ligusticum levisticum, Lévistique Officinale, Love Parsley, Maggi Plant, Persil d'Amour, Sea Parsley, Smellage, and Szechuan Lovage.

It is native to some regions of Europe and Asia and has been long cultivated in Europe, with the leaves used as an herb, the roots as a vegetable, and the seeds as a spice. Brought from Europe as both a food and as a medicinal plant, it now grows wild in the United States in New England, the Great Lakes states, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico.

Plant Parts and Preparations

The leaf, seed, and root can all be used medicinally, with applications directed primarily at the urinary and digestive systems. In commercial and clinical herbal practice, the root (radix) is the part that has received the most regulatory attention. Lovage root is defined pharmacognostically as the whole or cut dried rhizome and root of Levisticum officinale, an aromatic perennial herb from the Umbelliferae family, known for its carminative, diuretic, and antimicrobial properties.

The parts of the lovage plant most commonly used for medicinal purposes include its leaves, stems, and roots. Lovage is commonly made into an essential oil and can be used in infusions, tinctures, decoctions (preparations made by boiling fresh or dried herbs in water to extract their active constituents). The seeds are primarily used for gastric discomfort, while the leaf and root are more suited to urinary issues due to their diuretic properties.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Antiquity: Greek and Roman Medicine

Lovage has been grown for its aromatic fragrances, ornamental aspects, and medicinal properties for a long time, and its use can be traced back to ancient Rome. Its use is already mentioned in antiquity by Dioscorides, where it appears in Greek as ligusticon and in Latin as ligusticum, with the plant cultivated in the Alpine region of Liguria in Italy. The earliest documented medicinal uses appear in ancient Greek and Roman texts, where physicians prescribed it primarily for digestive discomfort and urinary complaints. Dioscorides, in his De Materia Medica, praised its warming properties and ability to dispel gas and bloating.

The history of lovage goes back to the ancient Greeks, who chewed the leaves for digestion and gas. It has a long history that traces back to ancient Mediterranean civilisations, and was widely used by the Romans and Greeks both in cooking and as a medicinal plant.

Medieval Europe

Lovage preparations were used in the Middle Ages primarily as an emmenagogue, carminative, diuretic, and as a remedy for various skin diseases, and were mentioned by Lonicerus (1564) and Matthiolus (1501–1577). Lovage herbal remedies go back to the 12th century and were an important therapy in the medieval School of Salerno. This foundational knowledge was transferred to medieval Europe, where monastery healers expanded on classical applications through careful observation and documentation.

The roots and fruits, being aromatic and stimulant, were used in herbal medicine for disorders of the stomach and feverish attacks, especially for cases of colic and flatulence in children. The root of lovage has also been known for centuries as a medicine possessing carminative and spasmolytic activity and other physiological effects.

Traditional Uses by System

In folk medicine, lovage roots were used for their diuretic, carminative, and spasmolytic properties. In empirical medicine, lovage has been used for dyspeptic complaints, as a digestive aid, as a diuretic, for menstrual complaints, as a mucolytic for catarrhs of the airways, as a carminative, stomachic, and emmenagogue. It was traditionally used to treat gout, rheumatism, and skin problems.

Historically, lovage was prized in colonial America and medieval Europe for both culinary and medicinal uses. Early settlers grew it for teas, tonics, and as a flavouring in soups and broths.

Culinary Traditions

The herb is rich in essential oil and is widely used as a seasoning for culinary purposes. Lovage has been long cultivated in Europe, with the leaves being used as an herb, the roots as a vegetable, and the seeds as a spice. In industry, it is used to produce spice extracts, herbal liqueurs, and bitter spirits.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Essential Oil and Phthalides

Levistici radix contains 0.4 to 1.7% essential oil, with the main ingredients being ligustilide (24 to 62%), 3-butylphthalide, and alpha-terpinyl acetate as characteristic components. Up to 64–80% of the essential oil consists of phthalides, which are mainly responsible for the characteristic celery-like odour. A further furanone derivative (sotolone) also contributes to the intense odour and aromatic flavour.

Essential oil may be isolated from lovage roots, aerial parts, and seeds by distillation and extraction. The main components of lovage essential oil are terpenes and phthalides, β-phellandrene, α-terpinyl acetate, and Z-ligustilide, present in different proportions in the different anatomical organs of the plant.

The principal components in the oils of L. officinale roots include β-phellandrene (0.1–48.9%), pentylcyclohexadiene (0–12.3%), trans-sabinyl acetate (0–12.1%), α-terpinyl acetate (0–26.1%), (Z)-3-butylidene phthalide (0.1–31.2%), and (Z)-ligustilide (0.2–70.9%). This significant chemical variability correlates with differences in geographic origin and growing conditions.

The phthalide mixture in the essential oil from roots of L. officinale includes E- and Z-butylidenephthalide, E- and Z-ligustilide, senkyunolide, and validene-4,5-dihydrophthalide, with isosenkyunolide and propylidenephthalide tentatively identified.

Phthalides are a class of secondary metabolites with a wide range of pharmacological activities including inhibition of various enzymes, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerosis, blood viscosity reduction, anti-angina, anti-convulsion, and antimicrobial activities. Levisticum officinale is a rich source of phthalides and their derivatives including (Z)-ligustilide, (Z)-3-butylidenephthalide, (E)-3-butylidenephthalide, 3-butylphthalide, and levistolide A.

Polyphenols and Flavonoids

Lovage contains up to 860 mg GAE/100 g fresh weight phenolic substances. Polyphenols in L. officinale belong to the classes of flavonoids (quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, and anthocyanins) and phenolic acids (chlorogenic, neochlorogenic, ferulic, gallic, ellagic), and these contribute to potent antioxidant properties of the plant.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) of lovage extracts has identified rutin, kaempferol, chlorogenic acid, and neochlorogenic acid among the most dominant chemical components of the plant material.

Coumarins and Furanocoumarins

In the chloroform extracts of lovage root, both coumarins and furanocoumarins (psoralen and bergapten) have been detected. Total coumarins are estimated at approximately 3.2%, including umbelliferone, coumarin, angelicin, and scopoletin.

The EFSA Scientific Cooperation (ESCO) Compendium of botanicals classifies the toxicity of substances present in the roots of lovage and recommends restrictions for use for coumarins and furocoumarins (mainly bergapten, umbelliferone, psoralen), and has quantified specific furocoumarin levels in the root seeds: imperatorin 12.82 mg/kg, 5-methoxypsoralen 6.38 mg/kg, psoralen 3.8 mg/kg, and 8-methoxypsoralen 0.5 mg/kg.

Polyacetylenes and Other Constituents

The most important polyacetylene constituents of L. officinale include 3(R)-falcarinol and 3(R)-8(S)-falcarindiol, which have been demonstrated to have various bioactivities. Its bioactive secondary metabolites further include essential oils, polyphenols (flavonoids, phenolic acids), coumarins (furano- and pyranocoumarins), saponins, alkaloids, and polyacetylenes.

A total of 24 compounds have been identified by GC-MS in the hexane extract of lovage root, evidencing a high relative abundance of phthalides. In low amounts, all extracts also exhibit the presence of the iridoid compound catalpol, which has been described as possessing extensive pharmacological activity relevant to kidney diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and diabetes.

Sensory Chemistry

Lovage gives rise to a gentle mouth-tingling gustatory effect due to the presence of ligustilide, a volatile TRPA1 modulator. This interaction with the transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) channel explains the characteristic mild prickling sensation experienced when consuming the herb.

4. Established Mechanisms of Action

Aquaretic / Diuretic Mechanism

The diuretic action of lovage encourages the elimination of fluid through the kidneys and reduces water retention. The chemicals in lovage are understood to increase water loss through urination and decrease spasms. The mechanism is considered to be "aquaretic" in character — increasing urine volume without the electrolyte loss associated with classical loop diuretics — though this distinction has not been confirmed in rigorous human pharmacodynamic studies.

Spasmolytic Activity

The phthalide constituent ligustilide has antispasmodic activity, which has been demonstrated through in vitro and animal models. Lovage is both recognized as a strong diuretic and for smooth muscle relaxation. Several studies have demonstrated vasorelaxant effects of ligustilide on cardiovascular vessels and myorelaxation of smooth muscles.

Antibacterial Activity

The essential oils are responsible for antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, as demonstrated in several in vitro studies. Isolated phthalides from lovage roots have been tested against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium, with one compound found to be active against S. aureus, E. coli, and VRE with MIC values of 16, 64, and 128 μg/mL, respectively. Lovage extract has been shown to provide synergistic antibacterial activity with pharmaceutical antibiotics, providing a greater antibacterial inhibition than isolated antibiotic therapies in vitro.

Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Mechanisms

Phthalides found in the essential oils of L. officinale have demonstrated antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Furthermore, scientific evidence has demonstrated that Z-ligustilide, a specific monomeric phthalide, exhibits anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties.

In cell-line experiments with the dichloromethane extract of lovage (DELO), treated groups showed lower expression levels of inflammatory genes and COX-2 protein compared to controls, and treatment with DELO resulted in an increase in Caspase-3 protein and BAX/Bcl-2 ratio in both HT-29 and Caco-2 colorectal cancer cells, indicating activation of apoptotic pathways.

Enzyme Inhibition and Metabolic Syndrome Pathways

The potentially bioavailable fraction of phenolic acids from lovage has demonstrated inhibitory activity against enzymes involved in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome, including ACE, lipase, amylase, and glucosidase, in vitro.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Urinary Tract Conditions

The urinary system is the area of lovage that has the greatest regulatory and clinical support, though virtually all of this support is granted on the basis of traditional use rather than robust randomised controlled trial evidence for lovage as a mono-preparation.

Levistici radix is a drug monographed by the German Commission E and is used in herbal medicinal products as a preventive measure against kidney gravel and in flushing therapy for the treatment of inflammatory diseases of the urinary tract. The German Commission E monograph specifies: unless otherwise prescribed, 4–8 g of drug and equivalent preparations daily. The Commission E indications are irrigation therapy for inflammation of the lower urinary tract and for prevention of kidney stones.

The EMA's HMPC concluded that the available data are sufficient to include the traditional use of specified preparations of lovage root in a European Community monograph. Levisticum officinale root fulfils the requirement of therapeutic use for at least 30 years (15 years within the Community, per Directive 2004/24/EC). The EMA's indicated traditional use is: "traditional herbal medicinal product to increase the amount of urine to achieve flushing of the urinary tract as an adjuvant in minor urinary complaints."

Clinical Evidence (as a component of Canephron®): The majority of human clinical data for lovage in urinary conditions comes not from mono-preparations, but from studies using the combination product Canephron® N, which contains lovage root alongside centaury herb (Centaurium erythraea) and rosemary leaf (Rosmarinus officinalis).

A published review evaluated 17 clinical studies from 18 selected publications concerning the safety, tolerability, and additional effects of Canephron® N (CAN) as standard therapy in various clinical settings, including: prophylaxis and treatment of UTIs in adults and children, therapy and prophylaxis in adult patients with renal stones, treatment and prevention of UTIs and other gestational diseases in pregnancy, and also safety and tolerability. Overall, CAN was shown to be effective in the treatment and prophylaxis of UTI compared with standard therapy, both in adults and children, and there was a reduced number of relapses.

A randomised, double-blind, phase III trial conducted by Wagenlehner et al. demonstrated that the treatment of women with acute lower UTIs using Canephron® was non-inferior to treatment with the antibiotic fosfomycin trometamol for the prevention of additional antibiotic intake.

Another study used the same Canephron combination product in comparison to antibiotic treatment (fosfomycin trometamol) as prophylaxis against postoperative UTIs. Before urogynecological surgery, 125 female patients were randomised: 67 received the antibiotic (3 g), and 58 received Canephron (three times daily for 14 days), started the day after the procedure. UTIs were observed in 6.4% of all patients, with no statistically significant difference between the groups. The authors concluded that Canephron is comparable to standard antibiotic treatment.

Evidence for lovage as a mono-preparation in urinary complaints: Lovage has been used historically as an antiflatulent and diuretic, but there are no clinical trials to support these uses as a mono-preparation. The urinary tract evidence base, therefore, is weak as it pertains exclusively to lovage and is indirect because all clinical studies used the multi-herb Canephron® product.

Cystinuria (small pilot study): A small clinical investigation studied the safety and efficacy of L. officinale in 18 patients with cystinuria (10 males, 8 females). The extract of L. officinale at a dose of one tablespoon, two times a day for two weeks was prescribed. Before and after the trial, urine volume and cysteine and creatinine levels over 24 hours were measured. This study was very small and its design and results should be interpreted with considerable caution; it does not constitute high-quality evidence.

5.2 Digestive System

Lovage is used as a remedy for the digestive system and has traditionally been used to settle the stomach and relieve colicky trapped wind and flatulence. The roots and fruits are aromatic and stimulant; in herbal medicine they have been used for disorders of the stomach and colic, especially flatulence in children.

The evidence for these digestive uses is entirely traditional and observational. While lovage is used for indigestion, kidney stones, cough, and many other conditions, there is no good scientific evidence to support these uses. No human randomised controlled trials have assessed lovage as a mono-preparation for any digestive indication.

5.3 Anticancer / Antiproliferative Activity

Research into anti-cancer activity is at an early, purely preclinical stage. All available evidence is from cell-line (in vitro) studies.

A PMC-published study examined the distinctive apoptotic and anti-inflammatory properties exhibited by L. officinale extracts on HT-29 and Caco-2 human colorectal carcinoma cell lines. The maceration method was used to prepare different extracts (ethanol, dichloromethane, petroleum, and residues), which were tested using the MTT assay to determine IC50 values. The dichloromethane extract exhibited a high cytotoxic effect on Caco-2 and HT-29 cell lines, with IC50 values of 106.0±2 μg/mL in HT-29 cells and 175.3±4 μg/mL in Caco-2 cells after 72 hours. None of the lovage extracts showed a significant cytotoxic effect on non-cancerous cells (3T3 cell line).

Z-ligustilide has been reported to demonstrate anti-tumor and antithrombotic activity in preclinical studies. A study in the journal Anticancer Research (Sertel et al., 2011) examined the chemical composition and antiproliferative activity of essential oil from the leaves of L. officinale against UMSCC1 head and neck squamous carcinoma cells. These findings are preliminary and entirely in vitro; no clinical translation can be claimed.

5.4 Antioxidant Activity

Lovage is an aromatic and medicinal plant traditionally used for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Studies evaluating hydroalcoholic extracts obtained from leaves, roots, and the whole plant have characterised their phytochemical composition by spectrophotometric and HPLC-DAD methods, measuring total phenolics, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and condensed tannins. The antioxidant activity has been evaluated by DPPH and ABTS methods.

Anti-inflammatory, anticancer, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, and other properties of L. officinale extracts have been demonstrated. Phenolic substances abundant in lovage have shown to be protective in models of osteoporosis and different cardiovascular diseases. All of this evidence remains preclinical (cell-line or animal models) and cannot be extrapolated to clinical recommendations.

5.5 Cardiovascular and Neurological Effects (Preclinical Only)

Z-ligustilide has been reported to demonstrate health effects such as anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antithrombotic activity, and a positive effect against neurological disorders in preclinical research contexts. Although the bioactivity of the integral lovage oils has not been widely studied, their components have been shown to possess antimicrobial, antioxidant, and other activities. No human clinical trials have directly evaluated lovage for cardiovascular or neurological endpoints.

5.6 Diabetic Nephropathy

An open-label study assessed the effect of the herbal combination Canephron N (containing lovage) on diabetic nephropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus, results of which were published in the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine in 2014 (Martynyuk et al.). Because this study used a combination product, the contribution of lovage specifically cannot be isolated. Evidence quality for this indication is low.

6. Regulatory Status and Official Monographs

The HMPC monograph classifies lovage root under traditional use: it increases urine volume, promotes flushing of the urinary tract in mild urinary tract complaints, for use of no longer than 2–4 weeks. The German Commission E monograph endorses it for flushing in inflammatory diseases of the urinary tract and for the prevention and treatment of renal gravel.

Due to the lack of data on mutagenicity and carcinogenicity, a list entry for Levisticum officinale root under the EU's well-established use category was not possible by the EMA; the traditional use designation was therefore applied.

One combination product, Canephron®, is approved in 31 countries for the short and long-term treatment of various urological diseases, and contains lovage roots alongside centaury herbs and rosemary leaves.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The following dosages are reported in regulatory documents and published sources. They reflect traditional or recommended practice and the Commission E monograph specifications, not necessarily outcomes from controlled clinical trials.

• General daily dose (Commission E): 4–8 g of drug and equivalent preparations daily.
• Tea (Commission E): 1.5 g of the drug in 150 mL of hot water, steeped for 10–15 minutes, then strained.
• Decoction (traditional): 2–3 g of the root decocted in a closed cup of water for 15–20 minutes, consumed three times daily.
• Traditional daily dose: 4–8 g; tincture administered at 0.5–2 mL three times daily.
• Fluid intake during irrigation therapy: A sufficient fluid intake of at least 2 litres/day should be ensured during flushing therapy.

The HMPC traditional use monograph recommends that lovage root preparations should not be used continuously for longer than 2–4 weeks without medical supervision.

8. Body Systems and Areas of Association

• Urinary system: Lovage is used as "irrigation therapy" for pain and swelling (inflammation) of the lower urinary tract, for prevention of kidney stones, and to increase the flow of urine when urinary tract infections or fluid retention is present.
• Digestive system: Lovage is used to support digestive function, traditionally used to support digestion, and relieve gastrointestinal spasms and flatulence.
• Respiratory system: Historically used as a mucolytic for catarrhs of the airways.
• Reproductive system: Traditional use records its application for menstrual complaints and as an emmenagogue.
• Musculoskeletal system: It was traditionally used to treat gout and rheumatism.
• Cardiovascular system (preclinical): Several studies have demonstrated vasorelaxant effects of ligustilide on cardiovascular vessels and myorelaxation of smooth muscles in non-clinical models.
• Nervous system (preclinical): The presence of catalpol in lovage root extracts is associated with potential roles in neurodegenerative disease models in preclinical research.

9. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Contraindications

Lovage is contraindicated in pregnancy, renal impairment, and renal inflammation. The Commission E monograph specifies that lovage root should not be used in cases of acute inflammation of the kidney or with impaired kidney function, and irrigation therapy is contraindicated in cases of oedema due to impaired heart and kidney function.

Lovage should be avoided in pregnancy, especially in the early stages, due to its emmenagogue action as a uterine stimulant. No safety studies are available on the use of lovage root during pregnancy and lactation. Its use in children and adolescents under the age of 18 is also not recommended due to a lack of evidence.

Phototoxicity

Due to the presence of furanocoumarins, photoactivation by UV radiation is seen as a concern. Due to the photosensitive properties of furanocoumarins, intensive UV radiation and intense sunbathing should be avoided during therapy. Concerns regarding phototoxicity, however, are not supported by clinical data or pharmacovigilance signals as being relevant for the use of lovage root as recommended in the monograph.

Skin and Contact Reactions

Contact allergies to lovage are rare. Published case reports have documented contact dermatitis caused by lovage essential oil. The possibility of allergic reactions in patients allergic to other members of the Apiaceae family should be considered.

Drug Interactions

Theoretically, lovage root might interfere with diuretic therapy due to its aquaretic effects, which may further increase water excretion by the kidneys. There is a theoretical risk for interaction with anticoagulant medications such as warfarin, since lovage contains coumarins which can be transformed into the anticoagulant dicoumarol by moulding. Lovage root may increase the risk of bleeding in patients receiving anticoagulants such as warfarin. Some furanocoumarins block the effect of a liver enzyme that could deactivate common medications.

Acute Toxicity and Safety Profile

Published data on pharmacological activities support the traditional use of preparations containing Levisticum officinale root oil, which is relatively nontoxic following acute exposure both by oral or topical routes. No case of overdose has been reported. Adequate genotoxicity studies have not been performed. No published data could be found on the carcinogenicity of lovage root.

Overall Evidence Characterisation

The evidence base for lovage as a clinical intervention is predominantly traditional and preclinical. Regulatory bodies such as the EMA/HMPC and the German Commission E have granted recognition on the basis of traditional use (over 30 years of documented application), not on the basis of controlled clinical trials for lovage as a mono-preparation. Lovage has been used historically as an antiflatulent and diuretic, but there are no clinical trials to support these uses as a standalone preparation. Human evidence that does exist relates to the multi-herb combination product Canephron® N, from which the individual contribution of lovage cannot be cleanly separated. Preclinical data — while suggesting interesting pharmacological properties across anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, and antiproliferative domains — should not be interpreted as evidence of clinical efficacy in humans.

References

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