Maclurin

Other Names

(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)(2,4,6-trihydroxyphenyl) ketone(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)(2,4,6-trihydroxyphenyl)methanon(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)(2,4,6-trihydroxyphényl)méthanone(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)(2,4,6-trihydroxyphenyl)methanone2,3',4,4',6-Pentahydroxy-Benzophenone2,3',4,4',6-Pentahydroxybenzophenone2,4,6,3',4'-Pentahydroxybenzophenone2-(3,4-dihydroxybenzoyl)benzene-1,3,5-triolBenzophenone, 2,3',4,4',6-pentahydroxy-Benzophenone, 2,3',4,4',6-pentahydroxy- (8CI)C.I. 75240C.I. Natural Yellow 11Fustic extractKino-yellowLagunamycinLaguncurinMaclurineMacurinMaklurinMethanone, (3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)(2,4,6-trihydroxyphenyl)-Moringerbic acidMorintannic acidMoritannic acidNSC 83240Patent Fustin

Synopsis

Maclurin: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Chemical Characterization

1.1 Chemical Name, Class, and Structure

Maclurin is a naturally occurring polyphenolic compound whose systematic IUPAC name is (3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-(2,4,6-trihydroxyphenyl)methanone. It is also known by the synonyms 2,3′,4,4′,6-pentahydroxybenzophenone, morintannic acid, moritannic acid, Natural Yellow 11, kino-yellow, and laguncurin. Its molecular formula is C₁₃H₁₀O₆, and it is assigned PubChem CID 68213. The CAS registry number is 519-34-6. It belongs to the ontological category of benzophenones in the ChEBI Ontology tree. Structurally, maclurin is a pentahydroxylated benzophenone: it consists of a catechol ring (carrying hydroxyl groups at positions 3 and 4) joined via a carbonyl bridge to a phloroglucinol ring (carrying hydroxyl groups at positions 2, 4, and 6). This structure — (3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-(2,4,6-trihydroxyphenyl)methanone — is the key molecular motif underlying its reactivity and biological activity.

Maclurin is considered a xanthone precursor molecule, and its structural relationship with bioactive xanthones found in Garcinia mangostana has been noted in the literature. Mechanistic studies using HPLC–DAD and HPLC–ESI–MS/MS analyses demonstrated that maclurin (m/z = 261.12 [M−H]⁻) donates two hydrogen atoms to the DPPH radical to form an ortho-benzoquinone moiety, via hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) or sequential electron–proton transfer (SEPT), not radical adduct formation (RAF).

1.2 Physical and Solubility Properties

The exact monoisotopic mass of maclurin is 262.0477 Da. Its aqueous solubility has been described as approximately 5 mg/mL at 14 °C. Like many polyhydroxylated polyphenols, maclurin is more readily dissolved in polar organic solvents such as ethanol, methanol, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). In research settings, maclurin at a purity of 99% is commonly dissolved in DMSO, with stock solution concentrations reported at 50 mM.

2. Natural Sources and Botanical Origins

2.1 Primary Plant Sources

Maclurin is distributed across several plant genera in the family Moraceae and the genus Garcinia. Maclurin is found in Morus alba (white mulberry) and Garcinia mangostana (purple mangosteen), and several researchers have reported its anti-cancer and antioxidant properties. Maclurin has been identified as a major compound in mulberry (Morus alba L.) twigs and root bark. It is described as a phenolic compound extracted from purple mangosteen and mulberry twigs.

The compound also takes its name from the genus Maclura (family Moraceae). Commercial maclurin has historically been extracted from Morus tinctoria (Moraceae), now reclassified as Maclura tinctoria. The colouring principle maclurin, derived from this species, gives a yellowish-brown or khaki colour that was widely used for military uniforms.

Additional Garcinia species documented as sources of maclurin include Garcinia multiflora and Garcinia assugu, with these findings published in phytochemical studies of xanthones and benzophenones from the genus.

2.2 Botanical Description of Key Source Plants

Maclura tinctoria (Moraceae), commonly known as "dinde," is a lactescent tree of significant economic importance with extensive ethnomedicinal and ethnobotanical applications. The Fustic Tree or Maclura tinctoria is a yellow dye-producing tree found in South America; the yellow dye known as fustic is used for colouring khaki fabric for military apparel. The tree typically grows to approximately 15–30 m in height with a dense and spreading crown.

Morus alba (white mulberry) is a deciduous tree of East Asian origin and is now cultivated widely throughout the world. Known as white mulberry, it has been used to treat fever, protect against liver damage, improve eyesight, and lower blood sugar levels in traditional oriental medicine.

Garcinia mangostana Linn. (GML) belongs to the family Guttiferae and is named "the queen of fruits." It is cultivated in the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asian nations including Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand.

2.3 Other Maclura Species and Related Genera

Maclura is a plant genus little known and used; species within the genus have been mainly used in the recovery of soils, for medicinal purposes such as dental infection treatments, and as wood for furniture and construction. The overexploitation of certain species has placed them in endangered extinction status in some countries, such as Brazil. Bioactive compounds including phenolic and flavonoid compounds have been found in species such as M. pomifera, M. cochinchinensis, and M. tinctoria.

In related species such as Maclura tricuspidata (formerly Cudrania tricuspidata), the leaves, root, stem, and fruit have been used in traditional Korean herbal medicine to treat jaundice, hepatitis, neuritis, and inflammation. Over the last two decades, several beneficial effects of M. tricuspidata extracts have been reported, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-obesity properties. A variety of bioactive compounds including prenylated xanthones, phenolic acids, and flavonoids have been identified from its different plant parts.

3. Traditional and Historical Use

3.1 Dye and Industrial Use: The Fustic Tradition

The most extensively documented traditional use of maclurin-bearing plants is as a natural dye source. The Fustic Tree, a tropical American species, played a crucial role in the textile industries of Europe and the Americas for centuries; this large tree from the mulberry family produces heartwood that yields one of the most permanent and brilliant yellow dyes known to traditional dyeing. The colouring principle maclurin gives a yellowish-brown or khaki colour widely used for military uniforms; when combined with other dyes it yields various colours for cotton and silk materials, and also a permanent black.

The heartwood yields morin (a related yellow flavonoid, also called fustic), historically used for colouring textiles in shades of yellow, brown, olive, and khaki, including military uniforms during World War I. The related compound maclurin was co-extracted and historically described in early phytochemical literature on the wood of Morus tinctoria (now Maclura tinctoria).

3.2 Ethnomedicinal Use: Neotropical Traditions

Among native populations in the Neotropics, dinde (Maclura tinctoria) is used to address diverse forms of inflammatory arthritis, along with ailments stemming from viral, bacterial, or fungal origins. Its efficacy stands out notably in the treatment of conditions affecting the buccal cavity, respiratory tract, and venereal infections. These medicinal attributes have spurred investigations into the potential for developing nutraceuticals and pharmacological agents.

The bark of Maclura tinctoria is described in traditional plant use records as astringent, tonic, and vermifuge.

3.3 Traditional Use in Southeast Asia: Mangosteen

People in Southeast Asian countries including Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand have used the pericarp (peel, rind, hull, or rind) of Garcinia mangostana as a traditional medicine for the treatment of abdominal pain, diarrhea, dysentery, infected wounds, suppuration, and chronic ulcer. While these ethnomedicinal uses pertain to the whole pericarp and its diverse xanthone and benzophenone content (of which maclurin is one component), the medicinal value of mangosteen pericarp is primarily attributed to its abundance of xanthones, especially prenylated derivatives, which exhibit diverse pharmacological applications such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, antifungal, and antiviral activities.

3.4 Traditional Use in East Asia: Mulberry

The leaves, root, stem, and fruit of mulberry-related plants have been used in traditional Korean herbal medicine to treat jaundice, hepatitis, neuritis, and inflammation. In traditional oriental medicine, Morus alba has been used to treat fever, protect against liver damage, improve eyesight, and lower blood sugar levels. As maclurin is a constituent of mulberry twigs and root bark, its presence in these preparations would have contributed to some of the biological effects historically attributed to these remedies, though historical practitioners did not isolate or identify maclurin as an individual compound.

4. Key Chemical Constituents and Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Maclurin as the Primary Bioactive Compound

Maclurin, described as an exceptional member of the phytophenol family, has been found to effectively protect against mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) oxidative damage induced by hydroxyl radical at concentrations of 62.1–310.5 μM. The five hydroxyl groups distributed across its two phenyl rings — particularly the ortho-dihydroxyl (catechol) motif on the B-ring — are central to its antioxidant activity. The antioxidant effects may be attributed to the o-dihydroxyl moiety and ultimately to the stability of the resulting 1,2-benzoquinone.

4.2 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Antioxidant assays have indicated that maclurin can efficiently protect DNA from hydroxyl radical-induced damage at 114.6–382.2 μM, and can scavenge hydroxyl radicals, DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical), ABTS⁺ (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid radical), and bind Cu²⁺, with IC₅₀ values of respectively 122.87 ± 10.14, 10.15 ± 0.85, 0.97 ± 0.07, and 133.95 ± 11.92 μM.

HPLC–DAD and HPLC–ESI–MS/MS analyses of the end-product of maclurin's reaction with DPPH clearly demonstrated that maclurin donated two hydrogen atoms to DPPH to form an ortho-benzoquinone moiety via HAT or SEPT mechanisms, not radical adduct formation. The investigators concluded that maclurin can effectively protect against hydroxyl radical-induced damage to DNA and MSCs, with a possible mechanism involving metal chelation and direct radical scavenging principally via HAT or SEPT.

Beyond DPPH and ABTS scavenging, maclurin has also exhibited strong antioxidant capacity based on ROS and ONOO⁻ (peroxynitrite) scavenging assays. When maclurin was applied to mesenchymal stem cells after the induction of oxidative stress by hydroxyl radical, it appeared to scavenge hydroxyl radicals possibly by metal-chelating and direct radical scavenging, protecting against oxidative damage to DNA and mesenchymal stem cells.

4.3 Anti-melanogenic (Tyrosinase-Inhibitory) Mechanisms

Pre-treatment with maclurin ameliorated UVB-induced melanogenesis presumably by direct binding to and inhibiting tyrosinase by forming multiple hydrogen bonds and aromatic and hydrophobic interactions with the residues of tyrosinase, without notable changes in mRNA expression of melanogenesis-related genes such as tyrosinase, TRP1, TRP2, CREB, and MITF. Protein–ligand docking simulation followed by binding residue analysis showed that maclurin may bind to inactivate tyrosinase by forming multiple hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic and aromatic interactions with the residues of tyrosinase.

4.4 Anti-cancer Signaling Mechanisms

In PC3 human prostate cancer cells, maclurin activated p38 signaling and inhibited c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), focal-adhesion kinase (FAK), AKT, and c-Myc signalling. In the same model, maclurin inhibited activities of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9) that are involved in cell migration and extracellular matrix degradation.

In A549 human non-small-cell lung cancer cells, maclurin suppressed migration and invasion via anti-oxidative activity and inhibition of the Src/FAK–ERK–β-catenin pathway.

4.5 AHR/Nrf2 Pathway Modulation

Maclurin treatment inhibited aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signalling as evidenced by reduced xenobiotic response element (XRE) reporter activity, decreased expression of cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1), and reduced nuclear translocation of AHR. The benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P)-induced dissociation of AHR from AHR-interacting protein (AIP) was suppressed by maclurin. Maclurin also inhibited the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species induced by B[a]P.

4.6 Anti-adipogenic Mechanisms

Using SwissDock software (ChEMBL version 23), investigators predicted a high probability (95.6%) of maclurin targeting fatty acid synthase (FAS), surpassing the interaction rates of established inhibitors like cerulenin. Docking simulations revealed maclurin's superior binding affinity to FAS, with a binding score of −7.3 kcal/mol compared to −6.7 kcal/mol for cerulenin.

4.7 Chondrogenic Differentiation Signaling

In bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC) studies, maclurin at 25 μg/mL treatment was not toxic to BMSCs, and compared with untreated controls, maclurin upregulated Sox9 and Col2a expression. Quantitative-PCR revealed that miR-203a-3p levels decreased significantly during chondrogenic differentiation of BMSCs promoted by maclurin.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

All current evidence for maclurin is preclinical — from in vitro (cell-based) and in silico (computational) studies. No human clinical trials specifically investigating isolated maclurin as an intervention have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature as of the time of this article's preparation. Evidence must therefore be characterized as preliminary and exploratory.

5.1 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence strength: In vitro and cell-based; no clinical data.

Maclurin, classified as an exceptional member of the phytophenol family, was found in laboratory studies to effectively protect MSCs from oxidative damage induced by hydroxyl radical at concentrations of 62.1–310.5 μM. Antioxidant assays indicated it could protect DNA from hydroxyl radical-induced damage at 114.6–382.2 μM, and demonstrated IC₅₀ values of 122.87 ± 10.14 μM (hydroxyl radical scavenging), 10.15 ± 0.85 μM (DPPH), 0.97 ± 0.07 μM (ABTS⁺), and 133.95 ± 11.92 μM (Cu²⁺ binding). The ABTS⁺ IC₅₀ value in particular indicates potent radical scavenging in this chemical model. One study indicated that maclurin addition to potato extract elevated antioxidant capacity, with the effect being greater than that of vitamin C. All these findings, while mechanistically informative, derive from cell-free or cell-based assays and cannot be directly extrapolated to human pharmacology without further investigation.

5.2 Anti-melanogenic / Skin-Lightening Activity

Evidence strength: In vitro (melanocyte cell lines, 3D human skin models); no clinical data.

When the cytotoxicity of maclurin was examined in B16F10 murine melanoma cells, no cytotoxicity was found at concentrations up to 20 μM. Maclurin suppressed UVB-mediated tyrosinase activation and melanin accumulation in B16F10 cells without changes in mRNA levels of melanogenesis-related genes including tyrosinase, TRP1, TRP2, CREB, and MITF. Moreover, maclurin reduced melanin contents in melan-a cells, a cell line for normal melanocytes.

When applied to a human skin model consisting of the epidermis and melanocytes, maclurin significantly reduced UVB-induced melanin accumulation (~47%) in a concentration-dependent manner based on microscopic observation and Fontana-Masson staining. The use of a three-dimensional human skin model is a methodological strength compared to standard cell line assays, but it still does not constitute clinical evidence. Together, the investigators suggested that maclurin may be applied as an anti-melanogenic agent. Due to its anti-melanogenic properties, maclurin is being explored as an ingredient in skin-lightening products and formulations aimed at treating hyperpigmentation disorders.

5.3 Anticancer Activity

Evidence strength: In vitro (multiple cancer cell lines); no clinical data.

5.3.1 Prostate Cancer

Investigators hypothesized that maclurin exerts antioxidant activity and anti-cancer effects in small cell neuroendocrine carcinomas (SCNCs), a very aggressive type of human prostate cancer. PC3 cells were selected as a model system. In the ROS detection assay, unexpected prooxidant activity of maclurin was observed in PC3 cells. For the anti-cancer activities, the effects of maclurin on induction of apoptosis and inhibition of metastatic characteristics of PC3 cells were investigated. In the apoptosis assay, maclurin significantly induced apoptosis of PC3 cells. Maclurin also inhibited cell migration in a dosage-dependent manner, and the gelatin zymography assay indicated that maclurin inhibited activities of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9) that affect cell migration and extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation. The observation of context-dependent prooxidant activity is a notable mechanistic nuance: in normal non-cancer cells maclurin has been documented as antioxidant, while in cancer cell lines it may generate ROS that promotes apoptosis.

5.3.2 Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Maclurin, identified as a major phenolic component of ethanol-extracted mulberry twigs, was reported to exert an anti-metastatic effect in A549 human non-small-cell lung cancer cells. Maclurin suppresses intracellular ROS levels in A549 cells. The anti-metastatic mechanism was further delineated as inhibition of the Src/FAK–ERK–β-catenin pathway. These studies are in vitro and cannot be interpreted as clinical evidence of anti-cancer activity in humans.

5.4 Protection Against Chemical Carcinogen Toxicity (Benzo[a]pyrene)

Evidence strength: In vitro (human keratinocyte cell line); no clinical data.

Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon formed during the incomplete combustion of organic matter, has harmful cytotoxic and mutagenic effects. Research has examined the effect of maclurin, one component of the branches of Morus alba L., on the B[a]P-induced effects in HaCaT cells, a human keratinocyte cell line. Maclurin treatment inhibited aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signalling as evidenced by reduced xenobiotic response element (XRE) reporter activity, decreased expression of CYP1A1, and reduced nuclear translocation of AHR. The B[a]P-induced dissociation of AHR from AHR-interacting protein (AIP) was suppressed by maclurin. These results are limited to a single in vitro cell-line model.

5.5 Anti-adipogenic and Metabolic Activity

Evidence strength: In silico and in vitro; no clinical data for isolated maclurin.

A study employing a multidisciplinary approach involving in silico and in vitro analyses was conducted to investigate the anti-adipogenic properties of maclurin derived from Morus alba. Using SwissDock software, a high probability (95.6%) of maclurin targeting FAS was predicted, surpassing the interaction rates of established inhibitors like cerulenin. Docking simulations revealed maclurin's superior binding affinity to FAS, with a binding score of −7.3 kcal/mol compared to −6.7 kcal/mol for cerulenin. The observed concentration-dependent decrease in lipid droplet size and number underscores maclurin's ability to modulate adipocyte morphology, a hallmark of adipogenic inhibition. These findings used 3T3-L1 adipocyte cell models and computational docking, and have not been translated to animal or human research for maclurin specifically as an isolated compound.

5.6 Musculoskeletal / Chondrogenic Activity

Evidence strength: In vitro (rat BMSC model); no clinical data.

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) can differentiate into chondrocytes under appropriate conditions, providing a potential method for the treatment of bone- and joint-related diseases. Mulberry (Morus nigra) was found to promote chondrogenic differentiation of BMSCs. Cell Counting Kit-8 assays showed that maclurin at 25 μg/mL was not toxic to BMSCs, and compared with untreated controls, maclurin upregulated Sox9 and Col2a expression. Quantitative-PCR revealed that miR-203a-3p levels decreased significantly during chondrogenic differentiation of BMSCs promoted by maclurin. Mimic inhibitor studies further demonstrated that miR-203a-3p inhibited expression of Sox9 and Col2a as evidenced by immunofluorescence staining and Western blotting. This work is entirely in an in vitro animal cell model and would require substantial further investigation before any conclusions about clinical utility could be drawn.

5.7 Neuroprotective Activity (Maclura tricuspidata extracts)

Evidence strength: In vitro; preliminary.

Compounds from Maclura tricuspidata, a related species, have been reported to have antitumor, antibacterial, antioxidant, neuroprotective, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, and α-glucosidase inhibition activities. These findings relate to plant extracts, not isolated maclurin, and therefore cannot be attributed specifically to maclurin's action.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Maclurin

Integumentary system (skin): Anti-melanogenic activity; inhibition of UVB-induced melanin synthesis; potential application in hyperpigmentation disorders. Due to its anti-melanogenic properties, maclurin is being explored as an ingredient in skin-lightening products and formulations aimed at treating hyperpigmentation disorders.
Antioxidant / cellular protection: Free radical scavenging (hydroxyl radicals, DPPH, ABTS⁺), metal chelation, and protection of DNA and stem cells from oxidative damage.
Oncology (preclinical): Induction of apoptosis and inhibition of migration/invasion in prostate and lung cancer cell lines; modulation of MAPK, FAK, AKT, MMP-2, MMP-9 pathways.
Metabolic system: Inhibition of FAS (fatty acid synthase) and reduction of lipid droplet accumulation in in vitro adipocyte models, suggesting anti-obesity potential. Maclurin has shown efficacy as a melanogenesis inhibitor and has been investigated for its potential anti-adipogenic activities.
Musculoskeletal system: Promotion of chondrogenic differentiation in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells via miR-203a-3p/Smad1 regulation.
Dermal/chemical protection: Inhibition of AHR signalling and CYP1A1 expression in keratinocytes exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (benzo[a]pyrene).
Food science: Maclurin was screened for anti-polyphenol oxidase activity and was selected as a strong antioxidant and polyphenol oxidase inhibitor; when applied to potatoes, maclurin inhibited enzymatic browning in the long term (5 weeks). As a natural preservative, maclurin can be used to prevent browning in food products due to its antioxidant activity.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Study Dosages

There are no established clinical dosage guidelines for maclurin as a dietary supplement or pharmaceutical agent. All dosage information derives from preclinical (in vitro or in silico) research. The following concentrations are as reported in source publications:

In B16F10 melanoma cells, no cytotoxicity was observed up to 20 μM. In HaCaT human keratinocytes, maclurin up to 70 μM did not exhibit cellular toxicity, but it slightly reduced cell viability at 100 μM.
Maclurin treatment at 38.2–191.1 μM protected mesenchymal stem cells from hydroxyl radical-induced cell cytotoxicity.
Effective protection against MSC oxidative damage was observed at 62.1–310.5 μM.
DNA protection from hydroxyl radical-induced damage was demonstrated at 114.6–382.2 μM.
In BMSC chondrogenic differentiation studies, maclurin at 25 μg/mL treatment was not toxic to BMSCs.
In keratinocyte experiments investigating B[a]P protection, maclurin at 99% purity was dissolved in DMSO with a stock solution concentration of 50 mM.

Maclurin is available as a research-grade pure compound extracted from natural sources, typically using solvent extraction methods. The most common method involves extracting maclurin from Morus alba fruit or plant material using solvents like ethanol or methanol. It is not currently available in standardized dietary supplement dosage forms for human use, and no pharmacokinetic data in humans have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature.

8. Safety Considerations

8.1 In Vitro Safety Profile

Although it has been reported that maclurin is rich in some edible fruits such as Morus alba (white mulberry) and Garcinia mangostana, the safety of maclurin application as a drug or cosmetic agent is not widely examined.

In cell-based studies, maclurin has generally demonstrated a favorable safety profile at concentrations used to achieve biological activity:

No cytotoxicity was found up to 20 μM in B16F10 murine melanoma cells.
Maclurin up to 70 μM did not exhibit cellular toxicity in HaCaT human keratinocytes, but it slightly reduced cell viability at 100 μM.
In BMSC differentiation studies using Sprague-Dawley rat bone marrow cells, maclurin at 25 μg/mL treatment was not toxic to BMSCs.

8.2 Context-Dependent Pro-oxidant Activity

A notable safety and mechanistic consideration is that maclurin does not behave uniformly as an antioxidant across all biological contexts. In the ROS detection assay for the verification of antioxidant activity in PC3 prostate cancer cells, unexpected prooxidant activity of maclurin was observed. This dual behavior — antioxidant in normal cells, prooxidant in certain cancer cells — is reported for several polyphenols and is mechanistically relevant to both therapeutic potential and potential for unintended effects in non-target tissues.

8.3 Presence in Edible Plants

Maclurin is rich in some edible fruits such as Morus alba (white mulberry) and Garcinia mangostana. Maclurin's natural origin as a phenolic compound derived from Morus alba (white mulberry) underscores its appeal as a botanical therapeutic agent. Natural products have long been explored for their bioactive properties and perceived safety profiles, making maclurin an attractive candidate for further development for therapeutic application. However, the long history of dietary consumption of mulberry and mangosteen fruits relates to the whole fruit and its complex phytochemical matrix, not to purified maclurin at pharmacologically active concentrations.

8.4 AHR and CYP1A1 Interactions

Maclurin treatment inhibited aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signalling as evidenced by reduced XRE reporter activity and decreased expression of cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1). The inhibition of CYP1A1 is relevant from a pharmacokinetic safety perspective, as CYP1A1 participates in the metabolism of various xenobiotics and endogenous substrates. Whether maclurin affects other cytochrome P450 isoforms involved in drug metabolism (such as CYP3A4 or CYP2D6) has not been investigated in the published studies identified.

8.5 Absence of Clinical Safety Data

No formal toxicological studies in animals or humans specifically evaluating maclurin's safety at defined dose levels have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature. The compound has been submitted to the National Cancer Institute (NCI) for testing and evaluation, and a Cancer Chemotherapy National Service Center (NSC) number of 83240 has been assigned. No regulatory authority (including the U.S. FDA, EMA, or EFSA) has issued a monograph, safety opinion, or Novel Food authorization for maclurin as an isolated ingredient. The European Pharmacopoeia, USP, WHO monographs, ESCOP, and German Commission E have not issued monographs specifically for maclurin as an isolated compound. NIH Office of Dietary Supplements and NCCIH do not list maclurin specifically in their ingredient databases as of the time of this writing.

9. Evidence Gaps and Research Status

The scientific literature on maclurin is exclusively preclinical. The primary evidence gaps that limit conclusions about its utility as a dietary supplement or therapeutic agent include:

Absence of human pharmacokinetic data (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion).
No animal toxicology studies at defined doses establishing safety margins.
No human clinical trials assessing efficacy or safety at any dose for any indication.
Limited dose–response characterization across cell types.
The context-dependent antioxidant/prooxidant duality requires further mechanistic clarification before therapeutic extrapolation.
Natural products have long been explored for their bioactive properties and perceived safety profiles, making maclurin an attractive candidate for further development for therapeutic application — but this remains an aspiration pending further research.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Maclurin may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Maclurin may help support.

No body systems available.