Magroside

Mogrosides (Magroside): A Comprehensive Reference Article

Nomenclature, Identity, and Terminological Note

The term magroside is an alternate, non-standard transliteration of mogroside (also spelled mogroside), used in certain commercial ingredient contexts. It appears in industry literature, for example in product descriptions offering a "readily soluble powder in 50% or 55% Magroside-V." The scientifically and regulatorily established spelling is mogroside, and all peer-reviewed literature, pharmacopeial documents, and government regulatory opinions use that form. This article treats "magroside" and "mogroside" as identical substances and uses "mogroside" as the primary term throughout, consistent with authoritative sources.

Mogrosides are a group of cucurbitane-type triterpenoid glycosides that possess different numbers of sugar moieties attached to mogrol (the aglycone) with β-bond linkage. The taste of Luo Han Guo fruits and their extracts is due to a mixture of cucurbitane-type triterpene glycosides — the mogrosides — with mogroside V being the major component of the ripe fruit.

Botanical Source and Natural Origin

The most famous and commercially significant source is Siraitia grosvenorii (Swingle) C. Jeffrey ex Lu et Z. Y. Zhang, a perennial herbaceous vine. Its formal Chinese name is Luohanguo (罗汉果), and it is locally known as monk fruit, lahanguo, jiakugua, or guangguomubie. It is an herbaceous perennial plant native to the southern regions of China, primarily found in subtropical areas such as Guangxi, Guizhou, and Hunan Provinces.

Siraitia grosvenorii is a Chinese plant of the cucumber or melon family, the fruit of which is used indigenously as a food, beverage, and traditional medicine. The genus Siraitia contains four species in China: S. grosvenorii, S. borneensis, S. borneensis var. yunnanensis, S. taiwaniana, and S. siamensis, all native to the southern parts of China, mainly in Guangxi and Hunan Provinces.

The main active ingredient in S. grosvenorii is mogroside (Mog), which accounts for approximately 3.8% of its content. Mogroside V (300 times sweeter than sucrose) is the major specialized metabolite and comprises more than 30% of the total sweetener compounds in the fruit pulp.

Chemical Identity and Structure

Mogrosides consist of various glycosylated compounds of mogrol (the aglycone). The sweetening components in the fruit extract include penta-, tetra-, and tri-glucose conjugate mogrosides. The chemical structure of mogroside V, the major component of S. grosvenorii, has been fully elucidated.

The novelty of the mogrosides among the cucurbitane triterpenoids lies in their four regio-specific oxygenations, at C3, C11, C24, and C25, forming the tetra-hydroxylated cucurbitane mogrol. Hydroxylation at the C3 position is inherent in the cyclization of the squalene monoxygenase substrate, and hydroxylations at C11 are fairly common, but the C24 and C25 trans-hydroxylations in the cucurbitanes are rare, reported in only a few instances in the Cucurbitaceae.

Mogrosides possess different numbers of sugar moieties attached to mogrol (as aglycone) with β-bond linkage. The number and locations of sugar moieties and the type of glycosidic bond can influence the sweetness of mogrosides.

The individual mogrosides are named and numbered by the count of glucose units attached:

• The primary medically active components include a group of cucurbitane-type triterpene glycosides — the mogrosides — mainly including mogroside III, mogroside IV, siamenoside I, mogroside V, and 11-oxomogroside V.
• Five known mogrosides are mogroside V, 11-oxo-mogroside V, siamenoside I, mogrosides IVa, and IVe. Iso-mogroside V was determined to be approximately 500 times sweeter than sucrose.
• The relative sweetness of mogroside V, IV, siamenoside I, and 11-oxomogroside V were reported as 378, 300, 465, and 68 times sweeter than sucrose, respectively.
• The biogenetic precursor of mogroside V, mogroside IIE, has a bitter taste and is present mainly in immature fruit. Research has shown that mogroside IIE is the predominant saponin component in fruits that are less than 45 days old.

Development of Mogrosides During Fruit Ripening

The content of mogrosides within the fruit undergoes variations corresponding to its developmental stages. During the initial 30 days post-pollination, Mog IIE predominates, gradually yielding to elevated concentrations of Mog III between 30 and 55 days. Subsequent phases from 56 to 70 days witness the emergence of Mog IV, Mog IVA, and Mog IVE, accompanied by a change in fruit flavor from bitter to sweet. Mog V was produced at 70 days, peaking in sweetness around 85 days post-pollination.

Traditional and Historical Use

The fruit of S. grosvenorii is among the first medicinal materials recognized by China's National Health Commission as a food-medicine homologous resource. Historical records indicate that S. grosvenorii has been used medicinally for over three hundred years in China.

The fruit has been used as an herbal medicine in China for more than two hundred years, with efficacies described in traditional Chinese medicine theory as cleaning heat, moistening the lung, clearing the throat, restoring the voice, and promoting bowel movements, according to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission.

The fruit of Siraitia grosvenorii (Luo-Han-Guo), a famous traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae, has been used as a pulmonary demulcent and emollient for treatment of dry cough, sore throat, dire thirst, and constipation.

Luohanguo has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a medicinal herb for treating cough and sore throat and is popularly considered, in southern China, to be a longevity aid.

Traditional Preparations

The traditional use of Luo Han Guo fruit has been to prepare an aqueous extract that is then consumed as a tea or tonic drink, in dough formulation instead of sucrose, and as a tabletop sweetener.

In the TCM materia medica, specific dosing practices were documented for the dried fruit used as decoctions. The standard decoction dose is 9–15 g (roughly half to one whole dried fruit). For severe coughs with thick phlegm or acute sore throat, doses up to 30 g may be used. When used as a simple tea infusion rather than a full decoction, one whole fruit is typically broken open and steeped in boiling water, which can be refilled 4–5 times.

The TCM classification of the fruit's therapeutic actions encompasses several distinct categories:

• Moistening the Lungs, Clearing Heat, and Stopping Cough — indicated for heat-type cough, hot-phlegm type lung congestion, acute sore throat, bronchitis, and whooping cough.
• Promoting fluids and stopping thirst; and benefiting Yin — traditionally regarded as a longevity tonic.
• Moistening the intestines for constipation from heat and dryness.

Siraitia grosvenorii is a premier food-medicine homologous species recognised by China's National Health Commission and produces mogrosides as its primary active component.

Key Chemical Constituents and Active Compounds

While mogrosides are the defining bioactive class, the extensive health benefits of the fruit are attributed to its diverse chemical composition, including triterpene glycosides, flavonoids, polysaccharides, vitamins, and other compounds.

The dominant mogroside of pharmacological interest is mogroside V (also denoted M5 or MOG-V). Mogroside V (M5) is a primary triterpenoid compound originally from Siraitia grosvenorii (Swingle) C. Jeffrey fruit. As a popular natural high-intensity sweetener, M5 has multiple benefits for human health.

The aglycone metabolite mogrol is also of significant interest. Mogrol has emerged as an important therapeutic candidate with multiple potential pharmacological properties, including neuroprotective, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiobesity, antidiabetes, and exerting a protective effect on different organs such as the lungs, bone, brain, and colon.

Mechanisms of Action

Research has identified several distinct molecular and cellular mechanisms through which mogrosides exert their biological effects:

Antioxidant Activity

Mogrosides have specific scavenging activities on hydroxyl and superoxide anion free radicals, which could reduce the occurrence of erythrocyte haemolysis, inhibit malondialdehyde production in liver mitochondria, and inhibit oxidative haemolysis in rat erythrocytes and lipid peroxidation in rat tissues.

Anti-inflammatory Pathways

Mogrosides can inhibit inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in RAW 264.7 cells by down-regulating the expression of key inflammatory genes iNOS, COX-2, and IL-6, and up-regulating some inflammation-protective genes such as PARP1, BCL2l1, TRP53, and MAPK9. Similarly, in the murine ear edema model, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced inflammation was inhibited by mogrosides by down-regulating COX-2 and IL-6, and up-regulating PARP1, BCL2l1, TRP53, MAPK9, and PPARδ gene expression.

Antidiabetic Mechanisms — AMPK Pathway

The antidiabetic efficacy of mogroside-rich extracts involves mechanistic insights such as AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway activation, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, immunomodulatory effects, and the regulation of gut microbiota.

Molecular analysis indicates that mogroside V up-regulates the expression of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), glucose transporter type 2 (GLUT2), and glycogen synthesis (GS), while down-regulating phosphorylated insulin receptor substrate-1 (p-IRS-1(ser)) and glycogen synthesis kinase-3β (p-GSK-3β). Overall, mogroside V alleviates insulin resistance and increases glycogen synthesis through the PI3K/Akt pathway.

Metabolic Fate and Gut Microbiota-Mediated Transformation

The metabolic fate of mogrosides is primarily characterized by gut microbiota-mediated deglycosylation leading to the formation of mogrol. Mogroside V is absorbed to some extent and is systemically bioavailable.

Anti-obesity — Adipogenesis Inhibition

In vitro studies have shown that mogrol inhibited adipogenesis in the 3T3-L1 cell line by activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity.

Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

1. Glycemic Control and Antidiabetic Effects

These compounds exhibit biological activities, including the regulation of blood sugar, fat metabolism, and immune function regulation. They are classified as high-intensity, non-nutritive sweeteners with significant medicinal potential and nutritional value.

The crude S. grosvenorii extract stimulates the secretion of insulin in pancreatic beta cells. Numerous papers have reported that when administered to diabetic mice, mogrosides may prevent diabetic complications via their strong antioxidant properties.

In cell experiments, mogrosides at 5 μM significantly restored glucose metabolism and insulin resistance (IR), and mogroside V (MO5) had the most obvious hypoglycemic effect. In rat experiments, fasting blood glucose, liver damage, and insulin sensitivity were improved by MO5 treatment.

Unlike traditional sweeteners, mogrosides do not raise blood glucose levels, making monk fruit extract a promising ingredient for dietary interventions that support metabolic health.

Evidence strength: It is important to note that, due to the limitation of clinical trial data, most of the evidence reviewed derives from in vitro studies or animal models. The antidiabetic claims therefore remain preclinical; robust human RCT data are lacking.

2. Antioxidant Activity

Mogrosides are known to function as antioxidants, anti-carcinogens, and anti-inflammatory substances. Radical-scavenging capacity has been demonstrated repeatedly in vitro, including against hydroxyl and superoxide radicals, as well as inhibition of lipid peroxidation.

Emerging evidence suggests that mogrosides, the primary bioactive compounds, may exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, clinical evidence supporting these claims remains limited.

Evidence strength: Antioxidant activity is well-documented in cell-based and animal models. Translation to clinical human benefit has not yet been established through controlled trials.

3. Anti-inflammatory Effects

Mogroside V (M5) is known for exhibiting diversified remarkable properties of pharmacological interest, such as anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, recovery of lung function, anticancer, and neuroprotective activities.

Di's research assessed the anti-inflammatory properties of mogrosides in both murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells and a murine ear edema model, and showed that the anticancer and antidiabetic effects of mogrosides may result, in part, from their anti-inflammatory activity.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (in vitro and animal). Bioactive compounds in the extract have shown antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and antidiabetic potential in preclinical studies and emerging clinical trials.

4. Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome

The mogroside-rich extract (MGE) of S. grosvenorii fruits can effectively ameliorate obesity, but the underlying mechanisms remain underexplored. Studies were designed to determine whether MGE can ameliorate obesity by protecting against divergences of gut microbiota, with mice challenged with a high-fat diet (HFD) and treated with MGE by oral gavage. These findings showed that MGE could significantly reduce body weight gain and fat tissue weight of mice fed with HFD. Moreover, MGE markedly attenuated fatty liver and improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity.

Evidence strength: Animal studies only. No human clinical data are available to confirm anti-obesity effects.

5. Anticarcinogenic Activity

Related studies have reported that mogrosides exhibit potent inhibitory effects on early Epstein-Barr virus antigens and the carcinogenesis of mouse skin tumors.

Mogrosides have been studied for anticancer activity among their range of documented medicinal properties in preclinical settings.

Evidence strength: Evidence is limited to cell-based and animal studies. No human clinical trials on anticancer effects have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature.

6. Neuroprotective Effects

The potential of mogrosides to serve as protective and therapeutic agents against Parkinson's Disease (PD) has been explored in preclinical research. Moreover, the emerging significance of the gut-brain axis in PD underscores the necessity to explore the effects of mogrosides on gut microbiota further.

Mogrol has emerged as an important therapeutic candidate with neuroprotective activity, exerting a protective effect on the brain.

Evidence strength: Entirely preclinical. No controlled human trials for neuroprotection have been published.

7. Hepatoprotective Effects

Modern pharmacological evidence suggests that the fruit has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, and hypoglycaemic activities.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only; hepatoprotective effects have not been validated in human clinical trials.

8. Respiratory Applications

In particular, the pharmaceutical preparations containing this plant have become the mainstay of clinical use in the treatment of throat disorders and lung diseases in Chinese traditional medicine practice. This reflects centuries of observed traditional use rather than outcomes from modern RCTs.

Evidence strength: Historical and traditional use well-documented; modern clinical trial evidence in this area is sparse.

9. Gut Microbiota Modulation

The gut microbiota structures were disturbed by high-fat diet (HFD) feeding. In particular, the abundance of Firmicutes was increased and the abundance of Bacteroidetes was decreased, resulting in an increased proportion of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes (F/B), which contributes to metabolic disruption. Mogroside-rich extract was shown to partially correct these microbiota disruptions in the HFD mouse model.

Evidence strength: Animal studies. Gut microbiota modulation by mogrosides in humans has not been established by clinical trials.

10. Clinical Human Evidence — Systematic Review of RCTs

Monk fruit extract (MFE), a natural, non-caloric sweetener, is gaining interest for its potential metabolic benefits, but its effects and regulatory status require further evaluation. A PRISMA-guided systematic review synthesized findings from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assessing the impact of MFE on metabolic health, lipid profiles, inflammation, and regulatory considerations.

The literature search was conducted across PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library, covering studies published between 2015 and 2025. Inclusion criteria were human RCTs evaluating MFE's metabolic effects, while animal studies, reviews, and mixed-intervention trials were excluded. Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool and the Jadad scale.

Emerging evidence suggests that mogrosides, the primary bioactive compounds, may exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, clinical evidence supporting these claims remains limited.

The overall assessment of the clinical evidence base is that it remains nascent. The great majority of mechanistic and efficacy data derives from preclinical sources. The PRISMA-guided review identified a very limited number of qualifying human RCTs in the published period, underscoring a significant gap between the well-studied preclinical profile of mogrosides and their clinical validation.

Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Traditional (TCM) Dosing

• The standard decoction dose is 9–15 g (roughly half to one whole dried fruit).
• An infusion or decoction of 9–15 grams (half to 2 fruits) is cited as an acceptable dose in traditional materia medica references.
• Up to 30 g in decoction is described for acute lung-heat cough or severe sore throat, under practitioner guidance.

Commercial Standardized Extracts

Monk fruit extracts are prepared by water extraction of the fruits of Siraitia grosvenorii. Cucurbitane glycosides (mogrosides) are the main components of the fruit, and mogroside V is the main mogroside in the monk fruit extract.

The primary components of the concentrate are mogrosides, with mogroside V constituting more than 25% of the product in some commercial formats.

Siraitia grosvenorii fruit juice concentrate (SGFJC) contains a mixture of compounds; the constituents that impart the characteristic sweet taste are cucurbitane glycosides known as mogrosides (II–VI). One commercial formulation contains 3.5% mogroside V (CAS Reg. No. 88901-36-4) and 1.5% other mogrosides. The composition of SGFJC, other than mogrosides, consists of sugars (e.g., sucrose, fructose, and glucose — 56%), water (35%), protein (0.1%), lipids (<0.1%), fiber (<0.1%), and 3.7% other components including primarily melanoidins and flavonoids.

In the toxicological animal study submitted as part of an FDA GRAS dossier, rats were gavaged with 50 mg mogroside V/kg body weight/day for 4 days. This represents a dosage used in safety evaluation, not a recommended human intake dose.

Sweetener-Grade Extracts

Siraitia grosvenorii Swingle fruit extract (SGFE) contains varying levels of mogrosides, which are the constituents primarily responsible for the characteristic sweetness of SGFE. SGFE, depending on the mogroside content, is reported to be 100 to 250 times sweeter than sugar. As a consequence of its extreme potency, the actual mass of mogroside consumed per serving as a sweetener is a small fraction of a gram.

Regulatory Status

The FDA granted GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) status to monk fruit extract via GRN 301 in 2010, based on a safety assessment submitted by BioVittoria. The GRAS determination covers the use of monk fruit extract (standardized to mogroside content) in a range of food categories including beverages, dairy analogs, processed fruits, and tabletop sweeteners.

While MFE has been approved as a food additive in regions such as the United States, China, and Canada, its regulatory status in the European Union remains under review due to insufficient clinical evidence on its long-term metabolic effects. The Novel Foods Regulation (EU 2015/2283) governs the approval of such ingredients, requiring comprehensive safety assessments before market authorization.

The EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF) provided a scientific opinion on the safety of monk fruit extract proposed for use as a new food additive in different food categories.

Safety Considerations

Genotoxicity and General Toxicology

Monk fruit extract containing 25% and 55% mogroside V were negative in the bacterial reverse mutation assay and did not induce structural and/or numerical chromosomal damage.

The antioxidant and food safety properties were evaluated by radical scavenging ability and via 7-day mice survival tests. The results showed that the sweet triterpenoid saponin mixture has the same favorable physiological and safety characteristics as natural mogrosides.

EFSA's Unresolved Safety Concerns

Despite a broadly favorable toxicological profile, EFSA identified specific uncertainties. The effects on the testis observed in a 90-day study with monk fruit extract (52% mogroside V) cannot be dismissed, and the adversity of these effects cannot be ruled out. No effects on parental, reproductive, or developmental toxicity were observed in a reproductive and developmental screening study in rats. However, for male animals, the time of exposure did not cover the full length of spermatogenesis and, therefore, a longer-term study at higher doses would be needed to clarify the effects on testes observed in the 90-day study.

Considering the systemic availability of mogroside V, the effects observed in the rat subchronic study, and following the principles of EFSA Guidance on food additives evaluation, data from chronic/carcinogenicity toxicity testing would have been warranted. Exposure to mogroside V was calculated based on the proposed use levels. The Panel concluded that the toxicity database on monk fruit extract is insufficient to conclude on the safety of the use of monk fruit extract as a food additive.

The in vitro toxicity studies, including those with metabolic activation, were not sufficiently informative to evaluate the genotoxic potential of the metabolites generated after microbial metabolism, including the aglycone.

Metabolite Considerations

The metabolic fate of mogrosides is primarily characterized by gut microbiota-mediated deglycosylation leading to the formation of mogrol. The safety of mogrol and other microbial metabolites at sustained levels of human exposure has not been fully characterized, which accounts in part for EFSA's request for additional toxicological data.

Long-term Use

Because monk fruit is relatively new to the mass market, there are no scientific studies on the effects of long-term use.

Traditional Cautions

In TCM practice, excessive or prolonged daily use is not recommended, as the extreme sweetness may burden the Spleen and Stomach over time, potentially causing digestive sluggishness in susceptible individuals.

Market Adulteration Risk

The dried fruit of Melodinus suaveolens (山橙), a plant from the Apocynaceae (dogbane) family, has been documented as a fraudulent substitute for Luo Han Guo on the market. Unlike genuine Luo Han Guo, Melodinus suaveolens fruit is toxic and lacks the sweet mogrosides.

Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Endocrine / Metabolic: Blood glucose regulation, insulin sensitivity, and potential antidiabetic effects. Sweetening without glycemic impact.
• Immune / Inflammatory: Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress activity has been documented preclinically.
• Respiratory: Traditional and modern TCM use for cough, sore throat, bronchitis, and lung heat.
• Gastrointestinal: Traditional use for constipation; modern preclinical data on gut microbiota modulation.
• Neurological: Preclinical neuroprotective data including research in models of Parkinson's disease and neuronal damage.
• Hepatic: Preclinical hepatoprotective evidence.
• Oncological: Preclinical anticarcinogenic/antiproliferative data; no human evidence.
• Lipid / Cardiovascular: Hypolipidemic activity has been identified as a pharmacological property of mogroside V.

Biosynthesis and Commercial Production

To date, the manufacture of mogrosides mainly depends on extraction from S. grosvenorii, but the low content limits large-scale commercial application. Such extraction processes suffer from low yield, high production cost, and loss and destruction of some valuable components. Great interest has focused on the de novo biosynthesis of mogrosides via metabolic engineering and synthetic biology strategies.

The low content of mogroside V in S. grosvenorii is the main reason for its limited application. To address this, two strategic approaches have been proposed: enhancing mogroside content in vivo through molecular design breeding, and developing synthetic biology platforms for mogroside synthesis to increase yields. These solutions offer viable ways to reduce production costs and expand the commercial use of S. grosvenorii medicines and sweeteners.

Summary of Evidence Strength

Across all areas of claimed benefit, the evidence base for mogrosides (magroside) can be characterized as follows: the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, anticarcinogenic, neuroprotective, and hepatoprotective properties have been studied primarily through in vitro cell culture experiments and animal models. Due to the limitation of clinical trial data, most of the evidence derives from in vitro studies or animal models. Clinical evidence supporting pharmacological claims remains limited. The most robust human-relevant evidence concerns its safety profile as a non-caloric, non-glycemic sweetener, for which the FDA has granted GRAS status, though EFSA has identified gaps in the long-term toxicological dataset.

References

• Peng et al. (2022). A Review of the Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of the Fruit of Siraitia grosvenorii (Swingle): A Traditional Chinese Medicinal Food. PMC / PubMed Central.
• PRISMA-Guided Systematic Review: Monk Fruit Extract and Sustainable Health — Randomized Controlled Trials. PMC / PubMed Central (2025).
• EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings. Safety of use of Monk fruit extract as a food additive in different food categories. PMC / PubMed Central (2020).
• Wang et al. (2014). Cucurbitane Glycosides Derived from Mogroside IIE: Structure-Taste Relationships, Antioxidant Activity, and Acute Toxicity. PMC / PubMed Central.
• Itkin et al. (2016). The biosynthetic pathway of the nonsugar, high-intensity sweetener mogroside V from Siraitia grosvenorii. PMC / PubMed Central.
• Glycosyltransferase engineering and multi-glycosylation routes development facilitating synthesis of high-intensity sweetener mogrosides. PMC / PubMed Central (2022).
• Mogroside-Rich Extract From Siraitia grosvenorii Fruits Ameliorates High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Associated With the Modulation of Gut Microbiota in Mice. PMC / PubMed Central (2022).
• A review of Siraitia grosvenorii: Applications, breeding, and biosynthesis of mogrosides. PMC / PubMed Central (2025).
• Pharmacological Activities of Mogrol: Potential Phytochemical against Different Diseases. PMC / PubMed Central (2023).
• Mogroside V and mogrol: unveiling the neuroprotective and metabolic regulatory roles of Siraitia grosvenorii in Parkinson's disease. Frontiers in Pharmacology / PMC (2024).
• Mogrosides as Dual-Function Sweeteners: A Comprehensive Review of Extraction, Metabolism, Antidiabetic Mechanisms, and Food Applications. Nutrients, MDPI (2026).
• A comprehensive review of Siraitia grosvenorii (Swingle) C. Jeffrey: chemical composition, pharmacology, toxicology, and applications. Frontiers in Pharmacology (2024).
• Siraitia grosvenorii — Overview. ScienceDirect Topics.
• Mogroside V derived from Siraitia grosvenorii fruit: From evidence of health-promoting benefits to food applications. Food Research International, ScienceDirect (2025).
• U.S. FDA. Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000627 — Siraitia grosvenorii Swingle Fruit Juice Concentrate.
• U.S. FDA. Aspartame and Other Sweeteners in Food — Siraitia grosvenorii Swingle Fruit Extract.
• Recent Advances in the Distribution, Chemical Composition, Health Benefits, and Application of the Fruit of Siraitia grosvenorii. Foods, MDPI (2024).
• A minor, sweet cucurbitane glycoside from Siraitia grosvenorii. PubMed (2009).
• Why Does Monk Fruit Extract Remain Only Partially Approved in the EU? Regulatory Barriers and Policy Implications. Foods, MDPI (2025).
• Zhang et al. (2025). Mogroside V: A Review of Its Structure, Synthesis, Pharmacokinetics, and Toxicity. Archiv der Pharmazie, Wiley.