IngredientsMassularia acuminata (G. Don) Bullock ex Hoyle is the accepted botanical name for this species. Recognised synonyms include Gardenia acuminata G. Don, Randia acuminata (G. Don) Benth., and Randia cacaocarpa Wernham. An additional synonym is Pomatium dubium G. Don.
According to the GBIF Backbone Taxonomy, the species is classified within the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Gentianales, and family Rubiaceae, genus Massularia. It is the type species of the genus Massularia.
Massularia acuminata (Rubiaceae), also known as "bitter chewing stick," is a medium-sized shrub that grows up to 5 m high. Herbarium records describe it as a shrub or small tree growing 2–30 feet high, bearing a corolla-tube that is greenish-white at the base shading into pink above, with lobes pink or reddish-purple, often with white margins; it grows in forest habitats.
Massularia acuminata is a plant native to West and Central Africa, particularly Nigeria, Ghana, and surrounding regions. It is widely distributed in West Africa. The species is also recorded from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Guinea, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Central African Republic, as confirmed by accessions held at Kew and in the Flora of West Tropical Africa.
Massularia acuminata is known as pako-Ijebu in Yoruba and is regarded as the foremost chewing stick in use. It is also called orin ijebu in the same language. In Liberia, the plant bears the Kru-Basa name neh-mle-chu, meaning "maiden's breasts tree," a reference to the shape of its fruits. Other vernacular names recorded in Sierra Leone include Kissi saŋgba-kpando and Mende ngigabui.
The stem is the part most commonly prepared as a chewing stick; it is split into units less than or about 1 cm in diameter and about 10 cm in length. In ethnomedicine, the stems and roots have also been chewed or brewed into decoctions as natural remedies for a variety of ailments. The plant is commercially available as a dietary supplement in dried powder form (derived from stem or root), as aqueous or ethanolic extracts, and encapsulated preparations.
Historically, the twigs of M. acuminata have been extensively used as natural toothbrushes, a practice rooted in traditional African medicine for promoting oral hygiene and preventing dental diseases. In Nigeria, the use of herbal medicines for oral health is prevalent because of their affordability, accessibility, and efficacy. A 2025 ethnobotanical survey in Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria, found that Massularia acuminata was the most used plant for oral health purposes among those surveyed, with a frequency citation (FC) of 64, relative frequency of citation (RFC) of 0.99, and frequency of literature (FL) of 99%. This high RFC and FL figure, implying that 99% of informants were aware of its use in oral health in the study area, is attributed to its popularity as a commercial chewing stick.
Massularia acuminata is a traditionally used herb in Yoruba medicine, employed as both a chewing stick and an aphrodisiac. The plant holds a special place in the management of male reproductive health, and it has been traditionally employed as an aphrodisiac and tonic to enhance male vitality and libido.
Its root, leaf, bark, and twig have several medicinal values, and it is used traditionally in some West African regions for treating diarrhea, dysentery, muscular pains, and venereal diseases. Folk remedies include decoctions or infusions prepared from the plant to treat infections, fever, and gastrointestinal disturbances.
In Central Africa, Nkundo populations around Lui-Kotale in the Democratic Republic of Congo have also employed the plant in traditional medicine. The use of Massularia acuminata by Nkundo populations in traditional medicine, as well as its consumption by bonobos, prompted pharmacognostic and phytochemical investigations. Among informants who took part in one such study, 29 mentioned the fruits of Massularia acuminata to treat sinusitis. The fruits have been used as a traditional remedy for sinusitis, with one ethnobotanical account noting that the average duration of treatment with fruits of M. acuminata is approximately 29 days when the plant is used as a monospecific recipe.
The leaf is known to be used as a remedy for oral thrush and tumour in Nigerian ethnomedicine. The leaves are also used in Nigeria as fish poison and for the cure of mouth infections.
Belonging to the Rubiaceae family, the plant is used in traditional African medicine against various indications, in particular against hernia and sterility.
The chemical composition of M. acuminata has been characterised across multiple plant parts and by different extraction methods. Phytochemical screening of the aqueous extract of the stem has revealed the presence of alkaloids (0.22%), saponins (1.18%), anthraquinones (0.048%), flavonoids (0.032%), tannins (0.75%), and phenolics (0.066%).
The phytochemical constituents present in the ethanol extract of the M. acuminata twig include anthraquinones, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, and tannins. Investigations of the bark trunk using an 80% ethanol extract have additionally found alkaloids, flavonoids, leucoanthocyanes, saponins, and tannins, as well as sterols and triterpenes. In the fruit fraction, aqueous extracts of the fruit revealed alkaloids, flavonoids, leucoanthocyanes, saponins, and tannins, as well as anthocyanins, monosaccharides, holosides, quinones, and reducing sugars.
High amounts of saponins, alkaloids, and cardiac glycosides have been detected in the stem.
Beyond class-level phytochemical screening, researchers have isolated and characterised specific bioactive molecules from M. acuminata:
The observed biological activities of M. acuminata have been tentatively attributed to specific classes of compounds:
The most extensively studied pharmacological application of M. acuminata is its claimed aphrodisiac and androgenic activity. All available controlled evidence derives from animal (rodent) models; no controlled human clinical trials have been published.
A study assessed the androgenic potentials of the aqueous stem extract in male Wistar rats over 21 days. Rats weighing 220–260 g were randomised into four groups: a control group receiving distilled water and three treatment groups receiving 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg body weight of the extract orally for 21 days. Animals were sacrificed 24 hours after days 1, 7, and 21. Compared with the control, extract administration at all doses produced significant increases (P < 0.05) in testes–body weight ratio, testicular protein, glycogen, sialic acid, cholesterol, testosterone, luteinising hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) concentrations throughout the period of administration. Testicular gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activities decreased significantly (P < 0.05) after the first dose and this was sustained throughout the experimental period. The available evidence in that study suggested that the aqueous extract of M. acuminata stem has androgenic potential which may stimulate male sexual maturation and enhance normal testicular function. The study found that testosterone concentration in testes increased by 50% after 21 days of administration.
A further study, published in PMC, specifically evaluated sexual behaviour parameters. Sixty male rats were randomised into four groups of 15. Controls received distilled water; treatment groups received 250, 500, or 1000 mg/kg body weight of the aqueous stem extract. Sexual behaviour was monitored on day 1 (single dose), day 3, and day 5, by pairing each male with a receptive female. Computed percentages of index of libido, mount, intromission, ejaculation, and copulatory efficiency were higher in the extract-treated animals compared with controls, while the intercopulatory interval decreased significantly. The extract also significantly (P < 0.05) increased serum testosterone content, except in those administered 250 mg/kg body weight on days 1 and 3.
In a separate study, aqueous extract of the root at doses of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight was investigated for effects on sexual behaviour in male Wistar rats. Phytochemical screening of the root extract confirmed the presence of alkaloids, anthraquinones, saponins, phenolics, flavonoids, and tannins. The increased frequencies of mount and intromission, and significantly prolonged ejaculatory latency at 50 and 100 mg/kg body weight, compared favourably (P > 0.05) with the reference drug, sildenafil citrate (Viagra). The concentrations of serum testosterone, luteinising hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone increased at all doses. The present study supported the acclaimed use of M. acuminata root as an aphrodisiac in Yoruba medicine of Nigeria.
Evidence summary for androgenic/aphrodisiac effects: Massularia acuminata is yet another plant claimed to have aphrodisiac potential and even testosterone-enhancing effect without any clinical data available in the literature. The existing evidence is exclusively preclinical (animal). No human pharmacokinetic data, dose-escalation studies, or randomised controlled trials have been conducted. Extrapolation to human efficacy or dosing is not supported by the current evidence base.
This area has attracted both in vitro laboratory research and limited observational data. The antimicrobial activity of M. acuminata against oral pathogens is the most consistently replicated finding across the literature.
One study determined the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of aqueous and ethanol extracts against oral isolates. The aqueous and ethanol extracts of M. acuminata had an MIC of 25 mg/mL, which was similar to that of commercially available mouthwash products analysed in the study. The ethanol extract was bactericidal against Lactobacillus species, Streptococcus oralis, and Neisseria sicca at a concentration of 50 mg/mL, suggesting it was more effective than the tested mouthwash products in that respect.
A study published in the Turkish Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences incorporated the ethanol extract of M. acuminata twigs into a herbal toothpaste formulation and evaluated its antibacterial activity compared with a commercially available herbal toothpaste against two dental pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans. The toothpaste was formulated containing 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5% M. acuminata extract. The study demonstrated that fortifying toothpaste with M. acuminata extract provided higher antibacterial activities against pathogens implicated in the development of dental caries and periodontal diseases in vitro.
Researchers at Olabisi Onabanjo University reported sensitivity to ethanolic extracts of M. acuminata in 50% of isolates of Staphylococcus aureus, one of the major organisms implicated in dental caries.
A study referenced in the Nigerian press evaluated chewing stick users against toothbrush users: there was no significant difference in oral hygiene status between those using a toothbrush and those using the chewing sticks, though slight improvements were detected in the gingival status of chewing stick users, though the data did not reach statistical significance.
Evidence summary for oral health: In vitro data consistently demonstrate antimicrobial activity against periodontal pathogens. Limited comparative clinical data exist and do not yet demonstrate statistically significant superiority over conventional toothbrush use. No large randomised clinical trials have been published.
Massularia acuminata is employed in herbal decoctions for the traditional treatment of diabetes, but its toxicity index and acclaimed hypoglycaemic potency had not previously been scientifically validated, necessitating further study. A study detected high amounts of saponins, alkaloids, and cardiac glycosides and found that the extract and fractions produced cytotoxicity in brine shrimp (LC50 1.26–21.54 µg/mL) and an LD50 of 111.8 mg/kg for intraperitoneal administration in albino mice. Treatment of alloxan-induced diabetic rats with extract caused a significant reduction (P < 0.05) in fasting blood glucose level of 45.63% in an acute study and 61.73% reduction in a prolonged two-week treatment. The extract and fractions demonstrated moderate antioxidant effects. The study substantiated the use of M. acuminata stem in the traditional management of diabetes; however, the toxicity of this plant is of immense concern, as evident by relatively low LC50 and LD50 values in both in vitro and in vivo studies.
Evidence summary for antidiabetic effects: Evidence is confined to in vitro and animal (alloxan-induced diabetic rat) models. No human clinical trial data exist. The narrow apparent therapeutic window observed in rodent studies is a significant limitation.
Massularia acuminata leaf is known to be used as a remedy for oral thrush and tumour in Nigerian ethnomedicine. The molecular structure of isolated compounds has been established by comprehensive spectroscopic analyses, and the extract and isolated compounds have been tested and evaluated for in vitro antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities, using agar dilution and MTS cancer cell viability assay methods.
Specific isolated compounds with reported anticancer activity include the oleanolic acid glycoside and acuminatoside, both from the leaf. A 2022 paper published in Chemistry Africa (Springer) examined saponin isolated from M. acuminata leaf for its ability to inhibit growth of microbial and human cancerous cells in vitro. These findings remain at the in vitro stage. No animal or human studies on anticancer activity have been published.
Investigations prompted by the use of M. acuminata by Nkundo populations and bonobos revealed, by phytochemical screening, the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, leucoanthocyanes, saponins, and tannins in bark trunk extracts, as well as anthocyanins, monosaccharides, holosides, quinones, and reducing sugars in fruit extracts. The highest antiplasmodial activity was recorded with the fruit extract (IC50 < 9.77 mg/mL). Evidence is in vitro only. No clinical antimalarial studies have been conducted in humans.
Pharmacological reports suggest the leaf extract as possessing antioxidant activity. The extract and fractions demonstrated moderate antioxidant effects using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay and ferric reducing power assay compared to ascorbic acid as a reference. Additionally, a 2025 animal study found that the ethanol leaf extract of M. acuminata has a protective effect against aluminium chloride-induced hepatotoxicity, oxidative stress, and alterations in lipid and electrolyte profiles in Wistar rats. All antioxidant findings are preclinical.
No safe or effective human dosage for any indication has been established. The following are dosages reported only in preclinical (animal) research.
As a traditional chewing stick, the stem is split into units less than or about 1 cm in diameter and about 10 cm in length. As an internal remedy, stems and roots are typically chewed or brewed into aqueous decoctions.
The most important safety signal emerging from the preclinical literature concerns the liver. A study reported that increases in activities of both aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in the liver and serum, as well as increases in concentrations of serum total bilirubin, protein, and albumin, were observed. The authors concluded that the aqueous stem extract of M. acuminata at doses of 250–1000 mg/kg body weight hampered the normal functioning of the liver of male rats and is therefore not safe for oral consumption at the doses investigated.
Confirming this signal, a study evaluating the toxicity of the aqueous stem extract reported that doses of 250–1000 mg/kg body weight caused functional toxicity of the liver of male rats and suggested that the plant is not safe for oral consumption at those doses.
An acute toxicity study of the ethanolic stem extract found that while the LD50 was >5000 mg/kg body weight, evaluation of hematological and biochemical parameters revealed a significant decrease (p <0.05) in white blood cell count and platelets, and a significant increase in creatinine and total cholesterol. The study concluded that the ethanolic extract of the stems of M. acuminata could exhibit hematotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity when higher doses were used.
A study examining testicular safety of the ethanolic stem extract found that the ethanolic extract of the stems was administered orally daily for 28 days to three groups of Wistar albino rats at 40, 80, and 160 mg/kg body weight. The repeated administration of the ethanolic extract of the stems of M. acuminata did not cause any significant disturbance of the red blood cell and haemoglobin levels compared to the control batch. Saponins isolated from the stem have been specifically examined for toxicopathological effects in rat studies referenced in the pharmacognosy literature.
The stem extract and fractions produced cytotoxicity to brine shrimp (LC50 of 1.26–21.54 µg/mL). The study's authors noted that the toxicity of this plant is of immense concern, as evidenced by relatively low LC50 and LD50 values in both in vitro and in vivo studies.
Possible side effects have not been well-documented in humans due to limited studies, and there is a lack of comprehensive safety data, especially concerning long-term use. The toxic potentials of M. acuminata stem have not been given much attention, despite its varied use in folk medicine. The divergent findings across preclinical studies — wherein the same doses shown to stimulate androgenic effects also produce hepatotoxic signals — represent a substantive unresolved tension in the literature that has not been examined in any human study.
Massularia acuminata has not been evaluated by the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements, the NCCIH, the European Medicines Agency (EMA), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), or WHO monograph programmes. It is not listed in any major pharmacopoeia or official monograph (German Commission E, ESCOP, USP, or European Pharmacopoeia). No official regulatory guidance on dosing, safety thresholds, or permitted health claims exists in any major jurisdiction as of the date of this article.
Health conditions that Massularia acuminata may help support.
Body systems that Massularia acuminata may help support.
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