Pedalium

Pedalium murex L. (Large Caltrops / Bada Gokhru)

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description

Scientific Classification

Pedalium murex Linn. (family: Pedaliaceae) is commonly known as Large Caltrops and Gokhru (India) and is a shrub found in the southern part and Deccan region of India, and in some parts of Ceylon. The genus Pedalium belongs to the family Pedaliaceae (the sesame family). According to modern databases (The Plant List and USDA GRIN-Global), the genus includes a single accepted species, Pedalium murex L., while P. microcarpum Decne., P. muricatum Salisb., and Rogeria microcarpa Klotzsch are synonyms.

Common and Vernacular Names

The plant is generally known as "large caltrops" and "land caltrops" in English, "Bada gokhru" in Hindi, and "Gaja-daunstraka," "Gokshura," or "Titta-gokshura" in Sanskrit. It is also known in Kannada as doddaneggilu, in Malayalam as motha-malvi-gokharu, in Tamil as Ananerinnil, in Marathi as Gokhara, in Gujarati as Gokhura, in Oriya as Yanai nerunjil, in Arabic as Khasake kabir, in Burmese as Sulegi, and in Persian as Khasake Kalan. In Benin (West Africa), it is commonly called "azizafen."

Botanical Description and Morphology

Pedalium murex L. is a succulent herbaceous plant with multifarious medicinal values in various traditional therapeutic systems. It is an annual herb that grows abundantly on the sea coasts in South India, Sri Lanka, Ceylon, Mexico, and tropical Africa. Leaves are simple, opposite, ovate or oblong-obovate. Flowers are greenish-yellow. The fruit is indehiscent with seeds 2 or 1 per locule, oblong. The fruit is four-angled with four spines in P. murex, which distinguishes it from the closely related Tribulus terrestris, whose fruit is five-angled with five segments and a pair of spines from each segment.

Geographic Distribution

The plant is widely distributed in tropical Africa, Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, and Mexico. Within India, it occurs commonly in waste places in the Deccan Peninsula, particularly near the coast, river belts, and other sandy areas. It is a common herb scattered throughout the western and Coromandel coasts of India as a weed of waste, and is also widely distributed in Tamil Nadu, Delhi, Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat, and the Deccan Peninsula.

Relationship to Tribulus terrestris

In Ayurveda, Tribulus terrestris and Pedalium murex are known as Gokshura and Brihat gokshura, respectively. Fruits of Bada Gokshura (Pedalium murex Linn.) are also sold under the name Gokshura, and none of the standard textbooks describe methods to differentiate the fruits of Pedalium murex Linn. from those of Tribulus terrestris Linn., especially when in powder form. This creates significant adulteration concerns in the commercial herbal trade.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurvedic Medicine

According to Unani and Ayurveda, P. murex is used as a cooling tonic and aphrodisiac, improves appetite, and is valued in strangury, vesicular calculi, cough, asthma, pain, for curing skin diseases and heart troubles, piles, and leprosy. In Ayurvedic classification, it is known by synonyms including sthulagokshura and tiktagokshura; its Rasa (taste) is described as Madhura (sweet) and Tikta (bitter), its Guna (quality) as Guru (heavy), and its Veerya (potency) as Sheetha (cooling). Due to its medicinal potential, it has secured a prominent position in various Ayurvedic formulations including Gokhuradiguggul, Gokhurkwath, Gokhuradiawalaha, and Deshnularishta.

Preparations and Plant Part Uses

Traditionally, Pedalium murex was used in different ways, either as a whole plant, individual plant parts, or in various special preparations. It is a diffuse, more or less succulent herb found near the sea coast of South India. An infusion of the leaves and stem in cold water is described as demulcent and diuretic, and was used for the treatment of gonorrhea. Fresh leaves and young shoots dipped briefly in boiling milk were used as an aphrodisiac. The fruit was considered demulcent, diuretic, antispasmodic, and aphrodisiac. A decoction of the fruit was used in irritation of the urinary organs. The juice of the fruit was used as an emmenagogue. The root was used for antibilious conditions.

The leaves were cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Leaves and branches, when briskly stirred in cold water, yield a thick mucilage similar to the white of a raw egg, which is reported to possess significant medicinal properties. When the leaves, fruits, and young twigs of Pedalium murex are agitated in water or milk, a viscid mucilage is formed. This mucilage is considered diuretic, demulcent, and tonic.

Unani Medicine

According to the Unani system of medicine, it helps to cure gleet, lumbago, stomachache, and is used as an emmenagogue.

Ethnomedicinal Uses Across Cultures

P. murex is reported traditionally to have an excellent cure in patients with reproductive disorders, which are mainly impotency in men, nocturnal emissions, gonorrhea, and leucorrhea in women. In West Africa (Benin), it is used as an aphrodisiac, to improve appetite, and to treat asthma, gonorrhea, heart troubles, urinary discharges, skin diseases, and impotency. The mucilaginous liquid resulting from shaking the leafy stem in water is used to treat seminal abnormalities and other male reproductive tract disorders. The dried powder of the fruit mixed with porridge is also used to alleviate male reproductive diseases. The plant is used in folk medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal problems, skin infection, pyrexia, malaria, sexually transmitted infections, toothache, and ulcers.

3. Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Overall Phytochemical Profile

Pedalium murex is a source of many bioactive compounds including terpenoids, lipids, phenolic acids, steroids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, vitamins, carbohydrates, reducing sugars, and proteins. Preliminary phytochemical analysis of the aqueous extracts of P. murex leafy stem and fruit has revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, coumarins, saponins, steroids, and lignans.

Compounds by Plant Part

• Fruits: Mainly contain alkaloids (3.5%–5%), stable oil, aromatic oil, resins, carbohydrates, saponins, glycosides, and triterpenoids, as well as two important flavonoids: 2′,4′,5′-trihydroxy-5,7-dimethoxy flavones and triacontanyl dotriacontanoate. Fruits are also rich in flavonoids, sapogenin (diosgenin at approximately 0.06%), and soluble proteins (20.14 mg/g).
• Leaves: The leaves contain important flavonoids including dinatin and its 7-glucuronide, diosmetin and its 7-glucuronide, pedaltin, and pedalin. Alkaloids, steroids, resins, saponins, and proteins are also reported.
• Roots: The root contains reducing sugars, phenolic compounds, saponins, xanthoproteins, alkaloids, triterpenoids, and flavonoids. The root also contains novel phenolic compounds such as phenol,2-(5,6-dimethyl pyrazinyl) methyl.
• Stems: Saponins, phytosterols, tannins, and carbohydrates were reported from the stem.

Signature Bioactive Compounds

Phytochemically, the plant is notable for a considerable amount of diosgenin and vanillin, which are regarded as important starting materials for synthesizing steroidal contraceptive drugs and isatin alkaloids. Other phytochemicals reported include quercetin, ursolic acid, caffeic acid, amino acids (glycine, histidine, tyrosine, threonine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid), and various fatty acids (triacontanoic acid, nonacosane, tritriacontane, tetratriacontanyl, and heptatriacontan-4-one).

P. murex contains several alkaloids including pedalitin, diosmetin, dinatin, pedalin, and dinatin-7-glucuronide.

Evaluation of phytoconstituents in Pedalium murex leaf powder showed that it contained phenolic compounds at 102.2 mg/g, flavonoids at 63.84 mg/g, steroids at 56.69 mg/g, tannins at 41.67 mg/g, alkaloids at 39.06 mg/g, and saponins at 27.45 mg/g.

In one 2025 study, phytochemical analysis of a leaf ethanol extract revealed high levels of total flavonoids (287.5 ± 17.3 μg QEq./mg) and polyphenols (327.5 ± 17.2 μg QEq./mg).

Diosgenin: A Key Compound of Special Pharmacological Importance

Among various bioactive compounds, steroidal saponins (triterpenoids in nature) are the major group of secondary metabolites, which have received the most interest due to their nephroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancerous activities, with diosgenin being one of them. Furthermore, the aglycone portion of diosgenin is the primary precursor of steroidal drugs such as contraceptives, testosterone, progesterone, and glucocorticoids. The plant is popularly known for the presence of diosgenin, which is strongly advocated for its potential role in treating infertility and fertility-enhancing properties, along with the production of corticosteroids and sexual hormones, as well as apoptosis-inducing, antiviral, and antineoplastic properties.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Phytocompounds like diosgenin, pedalin, pedalitin, β-sitosterol, isatin, lupeol acetate, and ursolic acid are among the many that are responsible for various therapeutic applications. The plant shows immune-modulatory effects by influencing corticosterone, low-density lipoprotein, thiobarbituric acid, lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide, exo-polysaccharides, cyclooxygenase, and free radical inhibitory mechanisms for neuroprotection, hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, antibiofilm, aphrodisiac, and anti-inflammatory activities, respectively.

The chemical compounds of P. murex include steroidal saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, inorganic nitrate, carbohydrates, and resins, with steroidal saponins being the main bioactive components.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

It is important to note at the outset that the large majority of pharmacological studies on Pedalium murex are preclinical — conducted in animal models or in vitro. As of the current literature reviewed, no large-scale, peer-reviewed randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in humans have been published. All evidence below should be interpreted with this limitation in mind. Further research should be aimed at clinical and phytochemical validations.

5.1 Reproductive Health and Aphrodisiac Activity

P. murex Linn. has been used as Vajikaran Rasayana (aphrodisiac) in traditional Indian medicine to treat male sexual dysfunction and impotency. A published animal study compared the plant's extracts directly to a pharmaceutical reference drug: the aim was to investigate the effects of P. murex fruit extract on sexual behaviors and testosterone levels of male rats during and after withdrawal of treatment. Extracts at 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg body weight per day and sildenafil citrate at 5 mg/kg body weight per day were administered orally by gavage for 28 days to male Wistar albino rats. Parameters studied included penile erection index, mount latency, intromission latency, ejaculation latency, mounting frequency, intromission frequency, post-ejaculatory interval, and serum testosterone levels at days 0, 15, and 28 during treatment, with further evaluation at days 7 and 15 after discontinuation. The study found experimental in-vivo and in-vitro evidence that the ethanolic extract possesses aphrodisiac properties and lends growing support for the traditional use of P. murex as a sexual stimulating agent. This evidence is limited to animal models.

A further study presents experimental in-vivo and in-vitro evidence that the ethanolic extract of P. murex fruits possesses aphrodisiac properties, and the study lends support for its traditional use as a sexual stimulating agent offering significant potential for studying the effect on male sexual response and its dysfunctions. Different experimental models have confirmed the effectiveness of P. murex leafy stem or fruit folkloric use as an aphrodisiac or male fertility booster. All such evidence is at the animal model level.

5.2 Urinary Tract Disorders (Diuretic and Anti-urolithiatic Activity)

P. murex has anti-inflammatory, antiurolithiatic, and diuretic properties, and has a demonstrated tendency to address urinary defects in experimental models. The plant is useful in urinary disease conditions and is distributed in the coastal areas of South India. Anti-nephrolithiatic activity was studied using petroleum ether, chloroform, ethanol, and aqueous extracts of the plant evaluated in albino rats. It was concluded that P. murex possesses significant anti-nephrolithiatic activity.

Traditionally, Gokshura fruits are used in Ayurvedic formulations for treating urinary disorders, calculus formation, impotence, and urinary tract infections. According to Ayurveda, the fruits of P. murex are also considered demulcent, diuretic, antispasmodic, and aphrodisiac, and useful in strangury, urinary discharges, vesical calculi, cough, asthma, skin diseases, and heart trouble. Evidence for urinary applications rests on traditional use corroborated by preclinical animal and in vitro studies; no confirmed human clinical trial data is available in the peer-reviewed literature.

5.3 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

A published preclinical study (PMC3794398) systematically assessed these effects: anti-inflammatory activity of Pedalium murex Linn., with doses of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg p.o., was evaluated by lambda-carrageenan induced paw oedema in Wistar albino rats; analgesic activity with doses of 280 mg/kg and 560 mg/kg p.o. was evaluated by hot plate method and acetic acid-induced writhing method in Swiss albino mice; and antipyretic activity with doses of 110 mg/kg and 220 mg/kg p.o. was evaluated in New Zealand white rabbits by injecting gram-negative lipopolysaccharide from E. coli. The extract showed significant anti-inflammatory activity from 15 minutes to 180 minutes compared to vehicle-treated animals, and was comparable to diclofenac sodium at 180 minutes. The extract did not prolong the reaction time on the hot plate method but significantly reduced the number of writhings after acetic acid administration. The extract did not show antipyretic activity on lipopolysaccharide-induced pyrexia. The study authors concluded that the ethanolic extract of Pedalium murex Linn. fruits has anti-inflammatory and peripheral analgesic effects. This evidence is preclinical.

5.4 Nephroprotective Activity

The ethanolic extract of dried fruits of P. murex was evaluated for nephroprotective activity in cisplatin-induced renal damage in rats. Nephrotoxicity was induced in Wistar rats by intraperitoneal administration of cisplatin 5 mg/kg, and the effect of concurrent administration of P. murex ethanolic extract at a dose of 250 mg/kg was studied by oral route. The nephroprotective activity was evaluated using cisplatin-induced renal damage models in Wistar rats, measuring serum creatinine and blood urea. Results from this model suggested protective renal effects, though these are rodent studies without human data.

5.5 Antioxidant Activity

To examine the antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of different solvent fractions of P. murex Linn. fruits, antioxidant activities were evaluated using six in-vitro assays, including total antioxidant assay, DPPH assay, reducing power, nitric oxide scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, and deoxyribose scavenging assays, and total phenol contents were also investigated. The ethyl acetate (EA) fraction was found to have high levels of phenolic content (298.72 ± 2.09 mg GAE/g). The EA fraction exhibited higher total antioxidant capacity, higher percentage of DPPH radical scavenging activity (135.11 ± 2.95 µg/mL), nitric oxide scavenging (200.57 ± 4.51 µg/mL), hydrogen peroxide scavenging (217.91 ± 6.12 µg/mL), deoxyribose scavenging (250.01 ± 4.68 µg/mL), and higher reducing power. This is in vitro evidence only.

5.6 Antiulcer Activity

The aqueous extract of P. murex demonstrated significant effects on ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats at dosages of 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg. The study compared results to famotidine, measuring ulcer index and total protein content. The plant is widely used to treat numerous diseases including gastric ulcer, asthma, and heart problems. This antiulcer evidence is preclinical (rodent model).

5.7 Antidiabetic and Hypolipidemic Activity

In streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice, serum triglycerides, glycerol, and free fatty acid levels were significantly elevated. Administration of a juice extract at 250 mg/kg reduced these levels by 60.99%, 52.91%, and 21.90%, respectively. The extract at this dosage demonstrated a hyperlipidemia-ameliorating effect comparable to metformin, notably lowering hepatic triglyceride content by approximately 17.49% relative to the STZ group. In other animal studies, P. murex extract at doses of 350 mg/kg and 700 mg/kg demonstrated hypolipidemic effects and restoration of pancreatic tissue. All published antidiabetic and hypolipidemic evidence is from animal models.

5.8 Antimicrobial Activity

Antimicrobial activity was shown in P. murex root methanolic extract against gram-positive bacteria, including Streptococcus pyogenes and Enterococcus faecalis, more so than against gram-negative bacteria. In a 2025 study, P. murex-synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) displayed a 16.27 ± 0.18 mm inhibition zone against Staphylococcus aureus. These results are in vitro and do not establish clinical efficacy.

5.9 Antidiarrheal Activity

The ethyl acetate extract of Pedalium murex L. at 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg body weight was administered orally to three groups of rats (five animals per group) to evaluate activity against castor oil-induced diarrhea. Two other groups received normal saline (5 mg/kg) and loperamide (5 mg/kg) as positive control. The effect on intestinal transit and castor oil-induced intestinal fluid accumulation (enteropooling) was assessed. At oral doses of 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg body weight, the plant extract showed pronounced and dose-dependent anti-diarrheal activity. The protective role of the extract at 1000 mg/kg was comparable to that of the reference drug, loperamide (5 mg/kg). The extract at 1000 mg/kg produced a decrease in intestinal transit comparable to atropine (5 mg/kg), and significantly (p < 0.01) inhibited castor oil-induced enteropooling. This is preclinical evidence.

5.10 In Silico and Computational Studies

A computational study explored P. murex compounds for potential treatment against the Vasopressin 2 receptor (V2R), which is a target for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). Compound structures were designed using ChemSketch software and optimized for pharmacokinetic properties; AutoDock VINA was used for molecular docking. Virtual screening identified seven compounds from P. murex with binding affinities ranging from −8.6 to −5.8 kcal/mol, which were recommended for further pharmacological study. This is early-stage computational work, with no in vivo confirmation.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

The plant is associated with antioxidant, antihyperlipidemic, neuroprotective, nephroprotective, anti-nephrolithiasis, aphrodisiac, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antimicrobial, antiproliferative, insecticidal, hepatoprotective, and antidiabetic activities. Based on the reviewed literature, the primary body systems and health areas associated with P. murex include:

• Urogenital System: The plant is considered sweet, cooling, mucilaginous, diuretic, and anti-inflammatory, and is used to treat digestive, carminative, and tonic effects, spasmodic affections, amenorrhea, vitiated conditions of pitta, inflammation, and general debility.
• Male Reproductive System: Traditionally used for impotency, seminal debility, nocturnal emissions, and as a Vajikaran (aphrodisiac and virilizing) agent in Ayurveda, with supporting preclinical animal evidence.
• Kidneys: Anti-nephrolithiatic and nephroprotective effects studied in animal models, though a toxicity study raised the paradoxical finding of potential nephrotoxicity on prolonged use (see Safety section below).
• Gastrointestinal Tract: It is also useful in the treatment of urinary and gastrointestinal tract disorders.
• Cardiovascular/Metabolic System: Hypolipidemic and antidiabetic effects observed in animal models.
• Immune/Inflammatory System: Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects demonstrated at the preclinical level.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

No standardized human dosage guidelines are established in authoritative pharmacopeias (WHO, European Pharmacopoeia) for Pedalium murex. The following dosages appear only as used in preclinical studies:

• Anti-inflammatory: 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg oral doses of ethanolic fruit extract in Wistar albino rats. Analgesic: 280 mg/kg and 560 mg/kg p.o. in Swiss albino mice. Antipyretic assessment: 110 mg/kg and 220 mg/kg p.o. in New Zealand white rabbits.
• Aphrodisiac study: extracts at 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg body weight per day orally by gavage for 28 days in male Wistar albino rats.
• Antiulcer (aqueous extract): 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg in ethanol-induced gastric lesion rat models.
• Antidiarrheal: ethyl acetate extract at 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg body weight orally in rats.
• Toxicity study (repeated dose): daily treatment for 28 days with aqueous extract at 200 mg/kg, 400 mg/kg, and 800 mg/kg in male Wistar rats.
• Hypolipidemic/antidiabetic: extract doses of 350 mg/kg and 700 mg/kg in animal models.

In traditional preparations, a decoction of the fruits was used as demulcent, diuretic, antispasmodic, and aphrodisiac. Mucilage preparations (leaves and stems agitated in water or milk) represent another traditional dosage form, but no quantified traditional dose appears in the peer-reviewed literature reviewed here.

8. Safety Considerations

Acute Oral Toxicity

An acute and repeated-dose 28-day oral toxicity study was conducted on the aqueous extracts from P. murex leafy stem and fruit in Wistar rats. The acute toxicity test was performed according to OECD guideline 423. The rats were randomly divided into three groups (n = 3), with the experimental groups receiving a single dose of 5000 mg/kg of each extract. In the acute oral toxicity test, there was no morbidity or mortality related to the treatments. Both extracts therefore belong to category 5 of the globally harmonized system (GHS) of classification — indicating very low acute toxicity at this extreme dose.

Repeated-Dose / Subchronic Nephrotoxicity Signal

The critical safety concern identified in the literature is a potential nephrotoxic effect with repeated exposure. In the repeated-dose 28-day oral toxicity test, both extracts did not alter animals' behavior; however, both extract administrations led to proteinuria and renal damage. The study concluded that P. murex leafy stem and fruit aqueous extracts exhibited potential nephrotoxicity, and that care should be taken when they are used over an extended period.

This finding is particularly paradoxical given that the same plant is traditionally used for kidney stone treatment and nephroprotection. Scientific data on the safety of P. murex are limited. The nephrotoxicity signal from the 2023 Journal of Toxicology study (PMC10382242) warrants specific attention.

Adulteration and Misidentification Risk

Fruits of Bada Gokshura (Pedalium murex Linn.) are sold under the name of Gokshura; no standard textbooks describe any method to differentiate the fruits of Pedalium murex Linn. from those of Tribulus terrestris Linn., especially when in powder form. This means that consumers and practitioners may unknowingly obtain one species when purchasing the other, as they share common market names.

Absence of Human Clinical Safety Data

P. murex is used in folk medicine for treatment of male infertility; however, scientific data on its safety are limited. All quantified safety and toxicity data currently available derive from rodent studies. No Phase I, II, or III human clinical safety or tolerability trials have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature reviewed here.

9. State of the Evidence: Overall Assessment

The study findings revealed a strong connection between P. murex traditional use and pharmacological activities. However, the ethnopharmacological validation through in-vitro and in-vivo studies on the plant has further confirmed potential antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antivenereal, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, antinephrotoxicity, aphrodisiac, antiulcer, neuroprotective, and kidney stone activities exclusively at the preclinical level. No peer-reviewed human randomized controlled trials have validated any of these applications. The body of evidence for Pedalium murex remains at an early stage: preclinical studies demonstrate biological plausibility for many traditional uses, but the bridge to confirmed human clinical efficacy has not yet been made. The paradoxical nephrotoxicity finding in repeated-dose animal studies is an important unanswered safety question requiring further investigation.

References

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• Antihyperglycemic activity of polyphenolic metabolites and biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from Pedalium murex — ScienceDirect (2025)
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