Persimmon

Other Names

American persimmonAsian persimmonCaucasian persimmonChinese persimmonCommon persimmonDate-plumDiospyros chinensisDiospyros kakiDiospyros kaki var. sylvestrisDiospyros lotusDiospyros oleiferaDiospyros texanaDiospyros virginianaDivine fruitEastern persimmonFlorida persimmonFuyu persimmonGamGeonsiGotgamHaluwabedHồng khôHoshigakiJapanese persimmonKakiKaki persimmonKesemekKhormalooKorean mangoLilac persimmonLotus persimmonOil persimmonOriental persimmonPossum applesPossumwoodShiShìbǐngSimmonSugar plumTexas persimmonWheat of ZeusYoushi

Synopsis

Persimmon (Diospyros kaki and Related Species): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Species, and Common Names

The genus Diospyros belongs to the family Ebenaceae — a name derived from the Greek, meaning "food of the gods." Over 400 species of persimmon are cultivated globally. Among these, Diospyros kaki, Diospyros virginiana, Diospyros oleifera, and Diospyros lotus are of significant importance. Most species are native to tropical and subtropical regions; however, some, including D. kaki, Diospyros lotus L., and Diospyros virginiana L., are deciduous and have adapted to temperate climates.

Diospyros kaki L. is a plant of the genus Diospyros Linn. in the family Ebenaceae, native to the Yangtze River basin in China. It is commonly referred to as the Japanese persimmon, Oriental persimmon, or "kaki." In the temperate zone, the most familiar species are D. kaki (the Japanese persimmon or Sharon Fruit), D. lotus (the Date Plum), and D. virginiana (the American Persimmon), all with edible fruits. The Diospyros virginiana species is native to North America.

D. kaki is the species from which the majority of varieties suitable for fruit consumption derive; it was introduced to Japan during the 7th century and to Korea during the 14th century. Diospyros kaki is an important fruit crop, with worldwide production of 5.2 million tonnes and 1.0 million hectares of area harvested as of 2014, representing five times more production and six times more cultivated area than 30 years prior.

Cultivar Classification

Persimmon cultivars are classified according to flesh darkening on seed formation into pollination constant and pollination variant, and according to astringency loss on ripening into astringent and non-astringent. Persimmon fruit is highly astringent due to soluble tannins in the vacuoles of the fruit flesh. However, some cultivars lose astringency naturally on the tree as fruit ripens, while others retain astringency until maturity. Persimmons are therefore classified into two major groups: astringent (A) and non-astringent or sweet (NA) cultivars.

Common Preparations and Supplement Forms

Persimmon is used in multiple forms across food, medicine, and nutraceutical industries. The fruit is consumed fresh, dried, and fermented. As a dietary supplement or ingredient, several plant parts are employed:

Fruit (fresh and dried): The persimmon is commonly used in its fresh form as a source of polyphenols and natural antioxidants. The fruit can also be used for the production of liqueur.
Leaf extract (PLE): Persimmon leaf extract (PLE) mainly consists of caffeine, chlorophyll, flavonoids (including therapeutic constituents: astragalin, hyperin, isoquercitrin, kaempferol, quercetin), organic acids, phenolic compounds, tannins, and vitamins.
Naoxinqing tablets: Naoxinqing tablets, made from the extract of persimmon leaves, have been recorded in the supplement of the China Pharmacopoeia 2010 as a protected variety of traditional Chinese medicines for the prevention and cure of coronary heart disease and cerebral arterial sclerosis.
Persimmon calyx: The calyx of persimmon has been used to prepare herbal drinks in Korea, China, and other Asian countries.
Standardized fruit extract capsules: A dietary supplement consisting of 400 mg of a standardized extract of persimmon fruit (Diospyros kaki L.f.) administered for 120 consecutive days has been assessed in recent clinical trials.
Persimmon vinegar: Used in some Asian countries as a traditional tonic preparation.
Leaf tea: In some Asian countries, persimmon leaves are used in tea formulations to address hypertension.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

East Asian Traditions (China, Japan, Korea)

Persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) leaves, known as Shi Ye in Chinese, have a long history as a Chinese traditional medicine for the treatment of ischemic stroke, angina, internal hemorrhage, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and some infectious diseases. The traditional medical use of persimmon leaves has been recorded in Chinese ancient medical books. Diannan Bencao, written by Lan Mao in 1556 during the Ming Dynasty, first recorded persimmon leaves as medicine for the treatment of chronic ulcers of the lower legs in folk medicine.

Persimmon leaves are also utilized as a hypotensive drug in Japanese traditional medicine. More broadly, Diospyros kaki leaves have long been utilized as traditional medicine for the treatment of ischemic stroke, angina, and hypertension, and as a healthy beverage and cosmetic for anti-aging. The dried calyx, known as "shikimi" in Japanese herbal medicine, was historically employed to suppress hiccups and relieve cough.

For centuries, traditional Japanese, Chinese, and Korean medicine have valued persimmon fruit, leaves, and calyx for their health-promoting properties. Ancient physicians recommended persimmon fruit for its cooling effect, using it to treat fever, thirst, and hypertension. Its high content of vitamin C, polyphenols, and dietary fiber earned it a reputation as a remedy for digestive health, especially in alleviating constipation and promoting regularity.

As a natural product beneficial to human health, persimmon leaves have long played a key role in human health traditions. In China, persimmon leaves have long been used as traditional Chinese medicine. Traditionally, persimmon leaves are used for curing ischemic stroke, hypertension, atherosclerosis, paralysis, frostbite, burns, and constipation, among other conditions.

Native American and Early American Traditions

Persimmons were employed by Native Americans, early European colonists, and later Americans for both food and medicine. Persimmons were consumed fresh, dried like prunes, made into "bread," and used to make pudding and pies. Native American groups used persimmon fruits as food; often dried and made into cakes or a sort of bread, which are well documented in the De Soto expeditions. Historically, the Cherokees also used persimmons for pudding, and used other parts of the plant for various purposes. They dried the leaves and steeped them in boiling water to create a light tea.

Traditional medicinal uses ranged from treating sore throats and mouths, to indigestion, thrush, and bloody bowels. Persimmon served as an astringent for venereal disease and a wash for piles. The bark was chewed for heartburn. The Catawba Indians boiled persimmon bark to make a mouthwash that treated thrush, and by the 18th century in Little Rock, Arkansas, the Medical Purveyor's Department was paying twenty cents per pound for persimmon bark. Persimmon bark has been used as an antiseptic to treat external ulcers, uterine hemorrhages, diarrhea, diphtheria, and dropsy. During the 1840s, in combination with dewberry and blackberry bark, persimmon bark was also used to treat gonorrhea.

The first written description of the persimmon was by the "Gentleman of Elvas" in his account of the de Soto expedition (1539–1543). This places the earliest European documentation of the fruit solidly in the mid-16th century.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Fruit Phytochemicals

Among fruits, persimmon is enriched with many bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, terpenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, minerals, and dietary fiber. Bioactive compounds, particularly phenolics (ferulic, p-coumaric, and gallic acids) and carotenoids (β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, β-carotene, and lutein) are of major interest in persimmon fruit.

Tannins and Proanthocyanidins

There are several types of persimmon cultivars with varying astringency depending on the tannin content. The higher the tannin content of the fruit, the more astringent it is. The astringency of the fruit is also thought to depend on its ripeness: young fruit is rich in proanthocyanidin (condensed tannins) and therefore astringent. Tannins present in persimmon are composed mostly of epicatechin, epicatechin-3-O-gallate, epigallocatechin, and epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate. Free phenolic acids, catechins, and hydrolyzable tannins are included in low-molecular-weight phenols, while high-molecular-weight phenols — also called condensed tannins or proanthocyanidins (PAs) — are large polymers of catechins with or without galloylation.

Carotenoids

Persimmons are rich sources of sugars (about 12.5 g/100 g FW), mainly glucose, fructose, and sucrose, along with total vitamin C. The main carotenoid components are β-cryptoxanthin (193 μg/100 g FW), β,β-carotene (113 μg/100 g FW), and β,ε-carotene (30 μg/100 g FW). Different parts of the persimmon fruit contain different types and amounts of carotenoids. For example, the quantity of β-cryptoxanthin, β-carotene, lycopene, or lutein is higher in the peel compared to the pulp. β-Cryptoxanthin, α-carotene, and β-carotene can be converted into vitamin A in animals and humans.

Flavonoids

Flavonoids are the main chemical components of persimmon leaves and important active substances. Persimmon leaves contain a high amount of flavonoids — including astragalin, hyperin, isoquercitrin, kaempferol, and quercetin — and terpenoids, along with other compounds including chlorophylls, carotenes, kryptoxanthin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignins.

Triterpenoids

Key terpenoids identified in persimmon leaves include oleanolic acid (PubChem CID: 10494) and ursolic acid (PubChem CID: 64945). A new flavonoid, kaempferol-3-O-β-d-2″-coumaroylgalactoside, and a new natural compound, kaempferol-3-O-β-d-2″-feruloylglucoside, have been isolated from the ethyl acetate layer of persimmon leaves, along with 25 previously known compounds, including fourteen flavonoids, one ionone, two coumarins, seven triterpenoids, and one acetophenone.

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides isolated from persimmon fruits and leaves have been shown to possess various therapeutic activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, anti-coagulant, antiosteoclastogenesis, and immunomodulatory effects.

General Macronutrient Composition of the Fruit

The moisture content of fresh persimmon fruit is approximately 73.47%, total carbohydrates 18.9%, total sugars 18.0%, with protein content at 0.76%, fat 0.42%, fiber 3.5%, and ash content 2.35%.

Mechanisms of Action

The major chemical constituents of the leaves of Diospyros kaki are flavonoids and triterpenoids, both of which are potential antioxidants that can prevent damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) or reactive nitrogen species and ameliorate oxidative stress.

The low-molecular-weight fraction of persimmon proanthocyanidins (LMPPP), which contains higher amounts of oligomeric proanthocyanidins, is more effective than the high-molecular-weight fraction in reducing oxidative stress. Persimmon and its bioactive components also attenuate the protein expressions of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS).

In HepG2 human hepatoma cells, astringent persimmon extract inhibited cholesterol amounts and HMG-CoA reductase activity. Treatment with astringent persimmon also upregulated the expression of LDL receptor and SREBP-2, and increased the level of HDL-associated ABCA1. These are in vitro findings and have not been validated in controlled human trials.

Persimmon leaves may have therapeutic potential against diabetes due to modulation of insulin-dependent glucose transport. Persimmon leaves influence insulin-stimulated muscular glucose transport and thus may act as an insulin sensitizer. Again, these proposed mechanisms are primarily derived from preclinical (cell or animal) data.

Persimmon leaf extract (PLE) can effectively reduce the mRNA level of interleukin-2 in Jurkat T cells, in addition to controlling the infiltration of effector cytokines and mast cells produced by activated T cells. Naoxinqing can regulate the expression of inflammatory factors and activate the Akt/Erk pathway to exert anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects, which play an important role in the treatment of stroke.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Antioxidant Activity

The role of bioactive molecules such as proanthocyanidin, carotenoids, tannins, flavonoids, anthocyanidin, and catechin is well-highlighted in scientific literature. Owing to its rich phytochemistry, persimmon and its products are considered effective in mitigating oxidative damage induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS).

In vitro studies have shown that persimmon fruit appears to have the ability to prevent LDL oxidation and inhibit oxidative damage to human leukocytes. The antioxidative effect of the ethyl acetate layer from the ethanol extract of persimmon leaves has been demonstrated by DPPH assay and online HPLC-ABTS analysis. The preponderance of antioxidant evidence for persimmon remains at the in vitro level; robust randomized controlled trials in humans specifically measuring antioxidant biomarkers as primary endpoints are limited.

4.2 Cardiovascular and Lipid-Lowering Effects

In a 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis, the use of combined persimmon leaf extract (PLE) significantly reduced total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels, while demonstrating a certain degree of improvement in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels, compared with control groups, in patients with dyslipidemia.

The meta-analysis concluded that PLE has been shown to be effective in improving blood lipid profiles in patients, suggesting its potential for widespread clinical application. However, significant heterogeneity was observed across existing studies, coupled with frequent methodological flaws, emphasizing the need for well-designed clinical trials with large sample sizes and extended follow-up periods.

Its beneficial outcomes on human health are still unclear due to limited availability of well-designed clinical trials. The in vitro data on cholesterol metabolism via HMG-CoA reductase inhibition and LDL receptor upregulation are mechanistically interesting but insufficient on their own to establish clinical lipid-lowering efficacy.

4.3 Antidiabetic and Glycemic Effects

In a clinical study, subjects were recruited from the Clinical Trial Center for Functional Foods at Chonbuk National University Hospital in Korea in 2014. Subjects of both sexes aged 20–75 years with prediabetes (fasting plasma glucose 100–140 mg/dL or impaired glucose tolerance 140–250 mg/dL) who had not been diagnosed with any disease were enrolled. Participants with a prediabetic condition were subjected to a randomized crossover study in which they were treated with persimmon leaf extract (PLE, n = 5) or placebo (n = 5) twice a day for eight weeks. This study was very small (n = 5 per arm) and a crossover design in prediabetics, making broad conclusions difficult.

Persimmon can ameliorate inflammatory responses in diabetes suppression owing to its ability to scavenge free radicals and elevate the ratio of reduced glutathione to oxidized glutathione. Consumption of persimmon fiber has been linked to improved cholesterol profiles and better glycemic control in individuals with mild hypercholesterolemia or type 2 diabetes in some small-scale clinical studies. Overall, the clinical evidence for antidiabetic effects in humans is preliminary and limited by small sample sizes.

4.4 Body Composition and Weight Management

A single-center, randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled clinical trial published in December 2024 assessed the efficacy of a dietary supplement consisting of 400 mg of a standardized extract of persimmon fruit (Diospyros kaki L.f.) in adult subjects with a BMI between 25 and 34.99 kg/m² administered for 120 consecutive days. In total, 36 participants were assigned to the placebo group and 35 to the experimental group (registered at ClinicalTrials.gov as NCT05750342).

Primary analysis focused on overweight subjects (placebo, n = 26; experimental, n = 23). In this group, fat mass expressed in kg and percentage evaluated by both dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) decreased significantly (between-group differences p < 0.001) in those receiving the persimmon extract compared with the placebo. No significant reduction in lean mass was observed, suggesting that muscle mass was maintained during fat loss.

In high-fat diet-fed rats, persimmon leaf extract lowered body fat weight and improved plasma and hepatic liver profiles. In another study in mice fed with a high-fat diet, fermented persimmon extract (FPE) supplementation led to an approximate 15% reduction in body weight, reduced abdominal and liver fat, and reduced serum levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, and glucose, suggesting that gallic acid, a potent major bioactive component in FPE, exerts potent effects via AMP-activated protein kinase. These animal findings support but do not confirm the human trial results.

Despite evidence provided by these preclinical studies, the potential benefits of persimmon extract in clinical settings, particularly for overweight individuals, had not previously been assessed before this 2024 trial. The 2024 trial represents the most rigorous human evidence to date for body composition effects, but replication in larger, multi-center studies is still needed.

4.5 Anti-Inflammatory Effects

The major compounds found in persimmon leaves exhibit potential antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiallergic, and antimicrobial effects. High-molecular-weight fractions of D. kaki extract exhibited significantly improved pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiwrinkle properties. These findings are from in vitro cell-culture studies and have not been validated in large-scale human trials.

4.6 Anticancer Properties

24-Hydroxyursolic acid, isolated from persimmon, was found to inhibit cell proliferation through activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway in colon cancer (HT-29 cells), along with inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX-2) expression, inducing apoptosis by activation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), caspase-3, and phosphorylation of p53 at Ser15. In addition, 24-hydroxyursolic acid blocked EGF-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation.

The antitumor and immune-enhancing efficacy of total flavonoids extract of persimmon leaves appears to benefit from the combination of multiple flavonoids. All anticancer data reported for persimmon to date derives from cell-culture and animal model experiments. No clinical trials in cancer patients have been identified. Evidence in this area is preliminary and entirely preclinical.

4.7 Antihypertensive Effects

Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) is a traditional medicinal plant widely cultivated in China, Japan, and South Korea and has been commonly used in folk medicine in East Asia owing to its different pharmacological activities, including anti-allergic, antihypertensive, antioxidant, hypotensive, and vasodilaxant effects. The antihypertensive claims for persimmon leaves are historically documented, and some experimental data exists, but rigorous, large-scale human trials are lacking. Clinical trials have revealed that the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) are important targets to control or manage hypertension, and persimmon compounds have been investigated against this pathway, but human clinical validation remains sparse.

4.8 Neuroprotective and Stroke-Related Effects

Naoxinqing (NXQ) tablets prepared from the ethyl acetate extract — mainly flavonoids (over 25%) — of persimmon leaves have been used as traditional Chinese medicine to prevent and cure neurodegenerative diseases. Naoxinqing can regulate the expression of inflammatory factors and activate the Akt/Erk pathway to exert anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects, which are considered to play an important role in the treatment of stroke. This is primarily supported by pharmacological research and TCM clinical use records; large, blinded randomized controlled trials in Western regulatory frameworks are absent.

4.9 Skin Health and Anti-Aging

Flavonoids from persimmon leaves possess tyrosinase-inhibitory activity. Persimmon leaves are used as healthy products and cosmetics, which have become increasingly popular in Asia, such as Japan, Korea, and China. The anti-aging or skin-protective data for persimmon are limited to in vitro assays and animal models, and no controlled clinical evidence in humans has been identified for this use.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Persimmon

Cardiovascular system: Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have assessed potential health benefits including anti-atherosclerosis and antihyperlipidemic properties of persimmon leaves.
Metabolic system (blood glucose, insulin sensitivity): Antidiabetic and anti-obesity properties have been investigated in in vitro and in vivo studies.
Gastrointestinal tract: Dietary fiber content and tannin-mediated astringency have been linked historically to constipation relief and intestinal health.
Nervous system: Neuroprotective properties have been investigated in in vitro and in vivo studies.
Immune system: Polysaccharides isolated from persimmon fruits and leaves have been shown to possess immunomodulatory activities.
Integumentary system (skin): High-molecular-weight fractions of D. kaki extract exhibited improved anti-inflammatory and antiwrinkle properties in vitro.
Eyes: Anti-glaucoma properties have been investigated in in vitro and in vivo studies.
Antimicrobial: Reported beneficial pharmacological effects of persimmon leaves include anti-bacterial activities.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are drawn exclusively from identified source documents and should not be taken as clinical recommendations:

Standardized persimmon fruit extract (capsule), body composition study: 400 mg of a standardized extract of persimmon fruit (Diospyros kaki L.f.) administered for 120 consecutive days in adult subjects with a BMI between 25 and 34.99 kg/m².
Persimmon leaf extract (PLE), prediabetes crossover study: Participants with prediabetes were treated with persimmon leaf extract (PLE, n = 5) or placebo (n = 5) twice a day for eight weeks. The specific mg dose was not stated in the available abstract.
Persimmon vinegar (animal study dose referenced): Persimmon vinegar at 2 mL/kg of body weight holds the potential to significantly decrease serum triglyceride and cholesterol along with reducing liver cholesterol in animal models.
Naoxinqing tablets (traditional Chinese medicine formulation): Naoxinqing tablets are prepared from the ethyl acetate extract, mainly flavonoids (over 25%), of persimmon leaves. Specific clinical dosing details were not available in identified peer-reviewed sources.

7. Safety Considerations

Diospyrobezoar Formation

The most well-documented adverse effect specifically associated with persimmon consumption is the formation of diospyrobezoars — gastrointestinal masses composed primarily of tannin. Diospyrobezoar is a bezoar caused by excessive persimmon (Diospyros kaki) consumption, typically occurring in individuals with risk factors such as a history of gastric surgery, diabetes, or advanced age.

Diospyrobezoars are a distinct subtype of bezoar formed from excessive consumption of persimmons (Diospyros kaki), which are rich in soluble tannins and dietary fibers. When exposed to gastric acid, these tannins can polymerize and interact with proteins and cellulose to form a hard, cohesive mass that resists digestion. Diospyrobezoars are relatively rare but can cause significant clinical symptoms, particularly when they lead to gastrointestinal obstruction.

While ingestion of persimmon carried a 9.8-fold risk of bezoar development, ingestion of the unpeeled fruit increased the risk of this complication 56 times over that of age- and sex-matched controls. A case-control retrospective study found that to prove that ingestion of unpeeled persimmon is necessary for the development of a persimmon phytobezoar, researchers interviewed 15 patients, in most of whom this condition developed after peptic ulcer surgery. They compared the study group with a control group of 15 patients who had undergone peptic ulcer surgery but did not have a bezoar. In contrast with the control group, most patients with bezoars had ingested unpeeled fruits (p < 0.01).

Since 1946, 20 men and one woman aged 40 to 76 years (average 57) were surgically managed for complications of diospyrobezoars. Shortly after eating persimmons, 52.4% had severe abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, and pyrexia. Twelve of 17 (70.9%) with gastric bezoars had hematemesis or melena caused by an associated gastric ulcer, while five (29.1%) had only moderate dyspepsia. In four (19.1%), the bezoar had lodged in the ileum, causing obstruction.

In one published case, a 5 × 5 cm mass composed of more than 98% tannin was removed, confirming the presence of a diospyrobezoar. Further history assessment revealed that the patient consumed two persimmons daily. This case highlights the importance of identifying diospyrobezoar-induced intestinal obstruction in older persimmon consumers, even in the absence of common risk factors such as prior gastric surgery or diabetes.

Conditions such as gastric dysmotility from diabetic gastroparesis or prior gastric surgery can elevate the risk of bezoar formation. Managing phytobezoars typically involves conservative approaches such as administering proteolytic enzymes, cellulase, and carbonated beverages orally or through gastric lavage, sodium bicarbonate powder, aspiration, endoscopic fragmentation, and, in refractory cases, surgery.

General Safety Profile of Persimmon Leaf Extract

Animal studies have found that persimmon leaves were not toxic. Further investigations are needed to explore individual bioactive compounds responsible for pharmacological effects in vitro and in vivo and the mode of actions. Further safety assessments and clinical trials should be performed before persimmon preparations can be integrated into medicinal practices.

Evidence Gaps and Limitations

Over the past few decades, there has been a lot of information available on the phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of constituents isolated from persimmon leaves. However, its beneficial outcomes on human health are still unclear due to limited availability of well-designed clinical trials. Most of the publications are in Chinese literature and recorded based on TCM theory, which at times restricts access to non-Chinese readers.

In summary, persimmon and its components hold potential as one of the effective modules in diet-based therapy; however, integrated research and meta-analysis are still required to enhance meticulousness.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Persimmon may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Persimmon may help support.

No body systems available.