Polygonatum

Polygonatum (Solomon's Seal): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Overview

Taxonomy and Species

The genus Polygonatum (family Asparagaceae) comprises 71 species distributed throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere. Overall, the genus contains 79 species, and 233 bioactive chemical compounds have been identified across them. There are about 60 species reported domestically and abroad, with 32 species in China, mainly distributed in the north temperate zone. The genus is commonly known in English as Solomon's seal or King Solomon's seal. The genus Polygonatum belongs to a perennial herbaceous plant whose English name is King Solomon's seal, and it belongs to the Asparagaceae family.

From a medicinal standpoint, several species are of primary importance. Among these species, 37 species and 1 variety have records of medicinal use with the rhizome being the most commonly used part of the plant. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), the rhizome of P. odoratum is known as "Yuzhu," while the rhizomes of P. sibiricum, P. kingianum, and P. cyrtonema are known as "Huangjing."

Polygonati rhizoma is included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP) as a traditional Chinese medicinal material. It refers to the dried rhizomes of three different species of the genus Polygonatum Mill, namely Polygonatum sibiricum (called JīTóuHuángJīng in Chinese), Polygonatum cyrtonema (DuōHuāHuángJīng), and Polygonatum kingianum (DiānHuánɡJīnɡ), which have undergone a traditional processing technology called 'nine-steaming and nine-drying.'

Botanical Description and Natural Habitat

The genus is distributed throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere, including China, Japan, Korea, India, Russia, Europe, and North America. Most of the Polygonatum plants grow in moist and shady places, typically in forests or bushes with thick and fertile soil. Yuzhu (Polygonatum odoratum (Mill) Druce), belonging to Liliaceae, is a famous Chinese herbal medicine, commonly found in dry to moist shaded areas where the soil is rich. This perennial stands one to three feet high at maturity, producing small, white, and bell-shaped flowers and dark purple fruits that hang from the leaf axils largely in pairs.

Common Preparations and Dosage Forms

The dried rhizome is the primary material used medicinally and as a functional food. With the development of the health industry, Polygonati Rhizoma used as medicine and food has attracted great attention in recent years, and has become a research hotspot. Commercially, Polygonatum is available as:

• Dried sliced or whole rhizomes for decoction (traditional preparation)
• Standardized rhizome extracts in capsule or tablet form
• Extract granules (a common modern TCM format)
• Teas and functional food preparations (soups, braised dishes)
• Powdered rhizome in supplement blends

Other examples of food products that make use of Polygonatum rhizome are braised meat dishes, soups, and simmered sea cucumbers with Huangjing. A recommended use level of 1.4 g/day of P. kingianum extract powder has been established, primarily based on current use levels in Chinese supplement products. Both supplement products contain approximately 465 to 466 mg of extract in a single capsule, to be consumed 3 times daily.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

In TCM, the use of Polygonatum plants is documented in many well-known medicinal works, and they are considered to be the "Top grade" herbs in Shennong Bencao Jing (100 BCE–200 CE, Qin and Han Dynasties), Mingyi Bielu (456–536 CE, Han Dynasty), and Xinxiu Bencao (659 CE, Tang Dynasty). Native to East Asia, including China, South Korea and Japan, it is known as "Huang Jing" in ancient Chinese literature such as "Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing" and "Ben Cao Gang Mu", and has the same pronunciation as "Gold", similar to gold in plants; it is considered a common "Tonic herb" in traditional Chinese medicine, often used to treat a variety of ailments, including weakness and respiratory ailments.

It is known in the TCM tradition for its pharmacological effects, including qi tonification, yin nourishment, spleen invigoration, lung moistening, and kidney tonification. These are both Yin-nourishing herbs that are associated with delaying senescence and are often used to treat osteoporosis, feebleness, fatigue, diabetes, and lung disorders. Polygonatum sibiricum has a long-standing history of application in traditional Chinese medicine and various ethnic pharmacopeias to treat fatigue, aging-related weakness, memory decline, and metabolic disorders. It is believed to "tonify Qi and Yin," "nourish the kidney and spleen," and enhance vitality.

The rhizoma of Polygonatum odoratum (Yuzhu) is used to treat yin injuries of the lung and stomach in traditional Chinese medicine. The rhizome has traditionally been used for treatment of coughing, fever, and weakness due to malaise, and for treatment of hyperlipidemia, preventing cardiovascular disease, and improvement of cardiac muscle function.

Traditional Processing: Nine Steaming and Nine Drying

Nine steaming and nine drying is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) processing method, and it is widely used for processing tonifying herbs. Since the Tang and Song Dynasties, literature about nine steaming and nine drying became increasingly rich; the number of TCM herbs processed by this method grew to include Polygonatum sibiricum (Huangjing), among others. During this period, ancients identified irritation from raw Huangjing. The first record of the processing method was published in Master Lei's Discourse on Medicinal Processing in the Tang Dynasty, and the Supplement to Important Formulas Worth a Thousand Gold Pieces also recorded another method of "nine cycles of steaming and shining." The Shi Liao Ben Cao (Dietetic Materia Medica; 713–741 A.D.) first recommended the method of steaming and shining for nine times and recorded that raw Rhizoma Polygonati could stab the throat.

Ayurvedic and South Asian Use

In Ayurveda, the rhizomes of P. verticillatum and P. cirrifolium are used as an aphrodisiac or a tonic for weakness. It is also referred to in the history of India's Ayurvedic medical canon as "Salabmisri" or "Salam Mishri." Adulteration of Ayurvedic Polygonatum preparations, due to scarcity of the P. verticillatum plant, has been documented, and a method of identification and quantification described.

European and Other Traditional Uses

The medicinal plants of Polygonatum have been traditionally used as tonics in China, India, Pakistan, Iran, and Japan, and have been demonstrated to be highly effective in clinical practice for treating age-related diseases, diabetes, lung diseases, fatigue, feebleness, and indigestion. Plants of the genus Polygonatum have long been used as a traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of age-related diseases, diabetes, lung diseases, cough, fatigue, and feebleness in Asia, Europe, and North America. In European folk medicine, the rhizome was used topically as a poultice and internally for respiratory and joint complaints, though this tradition was less formally codified than the Eastern medical systems.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Many types of compounds have been isolated from Polygonatum species, including steroidal saponins, triterpenoid saponins, homoisoflavanones, flavonoids, alkaloids, lignins, phenethyl cinnamides, polysaccharides, and lectins. Polysaccharides, flavonoids, and saponins are the three main constituents studied most in Polygonatum, while research reports on the other trace constituents are not deep enough.

Polysaccharides

Among bioactive phytochemicals in Polygonati Rhizoma, polysaccharides play important roles in health-promoting activities through multiple mechanisms and potential synergistic effects with other bioactives. It has been reported that the polysaccharide is composed of many monosaccharides including fructose (Fru), glucose (Glc), mannose (Man), galactose (Gal), arabinose (Ara), and rhamnose (Rha), as well as a handful of glucuronic acid (GlcA) and xylose (Xyl). The molecular weights of polysaccharides from Polygonatum plants are estimated to be approximately 2,734 to 3.6 × 10⁵ Da. It has been reported that glucofructans were obtained from P. cyrtonema, glucomannans and galactomannan from P. sibiricum, and glucomannans from P. kingianum.

Steroidal Saponins

Recent research has shown that steroidal saponins are the principal bioactive metabolite of Polygonatum spp., exhibiting a wide range of pharmacological properties. The chemical constituents of Polygonatum odoratum include steroidal saponins, homoisoflavanones, and alkaloids. Sibiricoside A is a specific steroidal saponin that is predominantly distributed in the stomach, small intestine, kidney, liver, and other tissues of rats after administration.

Flavonoids and Homoisoflavanones

Flavonoids are an important class of phenolic compounds present across the genus. Polygonatum polysaccharide and associated flavonoids have various biological effects of regulating the immune system, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, and antioxidant actions. The homoisoflavanone sub-class is particularly characteristic of the genus and has attracted attention for potential estrogenic activity, as noted for P. sibiricum rhizomes.

Lectins

Some findings provide novel evidence that Polygonatum species may contain potential anti-tumor and anti-viral proteins for possible medical application and large-scale pharmaceutical production. Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins identified in several species and are among the bioactive macromolecules studied for antiviral and immunomodulatory properties.

Other Constituents

There are many compositions in P. sibiricum including polysaccharides, steroids, anthraquinone, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, lignin, vitamins, various acids, and so on. Polygonatum sibiricum rhizome contains glyceryl-1-monolinoleate as its primary active component relevant to sleep-modulating effects.

Effect of Processing on Constituents

There are numerous processing methods, and many chemical constituents and pharmacological activities change after inappropriate processing. The polysaccharide content decreases gradually following repeated steaming and sun-drying, but is almost stable after the fourth repeating cycle. The "nine-steaming and nine-drying" process is traditionally understood to reduce the irritant properties of the raw rhizome while transforming and concentrating tonic constituents.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Diabetes and Glycemic Regulation

This is the most extensively studied area for Polygonatum, with substantial pre-clinical evidence but limited human clinical trials.

Proposed mechanisms (preclinical): Research shows that Polygonatum sibiricum Redouté polysaccharide (PSP) reduces insulin resistance (IR) indices in T2DM mice, increases oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and serum insulin levels, reduces free fatty acid content to enhance lipid metabolism, and reduces glycated serum protein levels to promote glucose metabolism, thereby lowering blood glucose concentrations. Polysaccharides of P. sibiricum (PSP) at concentrations of 50, 100, and 250 μg/ml can alleviate IR and proliferation of IR-3T3-L1 adipocytes by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway in adipocytes; they promoted the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 and lessened the expression levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α).

In a study using a Type 2 diabetes mouse model, Polygonatum sibiricum saponin (PSS) significantly decreased blood glucose, water intake, and the organ index. PSS also effectively reduced total triglyceride, total cholesterol, LDL-C, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase levels in the blood, and increased HDL-C. This suggests PSS could reduce blood lipid content and initially improve hepatocyte damage. PSS alleviated hepatic insulin resistance, repaired islet beta cells, and enabled insulin to play its biological role normally. It also improved oral glucose tolerance and abated serum LPS and HbA1c levels.

In a T2DM mouse model study, PSP treatment could obviously decrease fasting blood glucose and fasting insulin levels, ameliorate glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, lipid, and inflammatory factor levels, attenuate pancreatic and liver damage, and increase fecal short-chain fatty acid content.

Evidence strength: The anti-diabetic evidence base consists predominantly of animal and in vitro experiments. In vitro and animal studies suggest potential applications in diabetes, osteoporosis, cancer, cardiovascular risk factors, and CNS and immune disorders; however, clinical studies are lacking to recommend use for any indication. No large-scale, randomized controlled human clinical trials specifically on Polygonatum monotherapy for glycemic control have been published in the peer-reviewed literature at this time.

4.2 Sleep and Insomnia

This area has the most direct and notable human clinical evidence for Polygonatum.

Eighty individuals with mild insomnia were enrolled in a four-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of PS rhizome extract (500 mg/day, n = 40, PS group) or placebo (n = 40, placebo group). The primary outcome measure was change in total score on the Athens Insomnia Scale (AIS). The secondary outcome measures included change in actigraphy data and perfusion levels in brain regions within the default mode network (DMN). The PS group showed greater improvement in the total AIS score with a significant increase in total sleep time relative to the placebo group. In addition, significant group-by-visit interactions were observed in the perfusion level of the medial prefrontal cortex within the DMN. Findings of this study provide first evidence that PS rhizome extract could be an effective natural ingredient for improving sleep in mild insomnia.

The rhizome of P. sibiricum, which contains glyceryl-1-monolinoleate as its primary active component, has been shown to improve insomnia in animal models.

Evidence strength: There is one published randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in humans (n = 80) at a dose of 500 mg/day for four weeks, showing significant improvements in sleep quality. This is promising but constitutes a single trial with a relatively small sample size and limited to mild insomnia. Replication in larger trials and in populations with more severe insomnia is needed.

4.3 Cardiovascular Health

Polygonatum is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine with a variety of pharmacological applications including antioxidant activity, anti-inflammation, antibacterial effect, immune-enhancing effect, glucose regulation, lipid-lowering, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. There has been more and more evidence to support the cardioprotective effect of Polygonatum in recent years. However, up to now, there has been a lack of comprehensive studies on the active ingredients and their pharmacotoxicological effects related to cardiovascular diseases.

In a preclinical aging study, irregularly arranged cardiac muscle fibers were observed in heart tissues of D-galactose-treated mice. D-galactose-induced heart aging and injury could be attenuated by oral administration of PSP. PSP also decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and increased the level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the hearts of D-galactose-treated mice. DNA damage and lipid peroxidation induced by oxidative stress were also inhibited by PSP, as indicated by reduced levels of 8-OHdG and 4-HNE.

Evidence strength: Cardiovascular evidence is currently limited to animal and in vitro studies. No human cardiovascular intervention trials have been published.

4.4 Anti-aging and Antioxidant Effects

Polygonati Rhizoma possesses remarkable anti-fatigue, anti-aging, metabolic regulatory, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-diabetes, and anti-cancer effects.

In a model organism study, experiments demonstrated a significant anti-aging biological activity associated with Polygonatum kingianum saponins (PKS). Through experiments involving lifespan and stress, lipofuscin, qPCR, and ROS measurement, PKS effectively mitigated aging-related processes. The mechanism underlying these anti-aging effects was linked to the SKN-1 signaling pathway. PKS increased the nuclear localization of the SKN-1 transcription factor, leading to the upregulation of downstream antioxidant genes such as gst-4 and sod-3, and a substantial reduction in intracellular ROS levels within nematodes (C. elegans).

Evidence strength: Anti-aging evidence is preliminary, derived from in vitro systems, nematode (C. elegans) models, and rodent models. No human clinical data on aging outcomes are available.

4.5 Neuroprotection and Cognitive Function

Recent pharmacological studies have confirmed the antioxidant, neuroprotective, and anti-aging properties of PSP, suggesting its potential in improving cognitive impairment and neural damage, particularly under chronic stress or degenerative conditions.

In animal models of Alzheimer's disease, male Kunming mice were randomly divided into groups; an Alzheimer's disease model was established by intraperitoneally injecting 120 mg/kg D-galactose and oral administration of 40 mg/kg AlCl₃ for 70 days. PSP at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, and donepezil (5 mg/kg) was administered orally for 35 days. The molecular docking results indicated that 10 active ingredients from Polygonatum exhibited strong binding affinity with 6 core targets. The activity of Polygonatum against Alzheimer's disease could be attributed to the regulation of multiple biological effects via multi-pathways including the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway.

PSP has been shown to enhance antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT) and reduce MDA in chronic restraint stress mice. PSP also regulates neurotransmitter imbalance by increasing acetylcholine and decreasing GABA levels. PSP modulates the HPA axis by reducing corticosterone levels, showing neuroprotective potential.

Polygonatum Rhizoma polysaccharide (PRP) is the main active component involved in the neuroprotective effects of Polygonatum Rhizoma and has potential therapeutic value, especially in aging-related Alzheimer's disease. With increasing age, the level of oxidative stress in the body increases, resulting in abnormal accumulation of the Aβ protein and excessive phosphorylation of the tau protein, which leads to the pathological characteristics of Alzheimer's disease.

Evidence strength: All neuroprotective evidence is preclinical (animal models and computational network pharmacology). No human trials on cognitive outcomes have been published.

4.6 Immunomodulation

Some traditional uses of Polygonatum species have been confirmed by pharmacological studies. In particular, PSP was found to possess anti-osteoporosis, neuroprotective, and immunomodulatory effects in vitro and in vivo, which confirmed the tonic function of P. sibiricum. The various bioactivities of three Polygonatum species, including immunomodulatory, anti-osteoporosis, neuroprotective, anti-oxidative, anti-fatigue, anti-aging, anti-tumor, and hypoglycemic activities, can be attributed to the different types of polysaccharides.

Evidence strength: Immunomodulatory effects have been confirmed in in vitro and animal studies. Clinical human evidence is absent.

4.7 Anti-tumor Activity

Bioactive metabolites in Polygonatum have shown strong cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic impacts in vitro and in vivo. However, current research mostly focuses on isolated metabolites, lacking comprehensive narrative analysis. Polygonatum extracts are known to induce both apoptosis and autophagy in cancer cells; however, effects on normal cells are unclear.

Evidence strength: Antitumor evidence is limited to in vitro and early-stage animal studies. No human oncology trials have been published.

4.8 Anti-osteoporosis

Trabecular bone architecture improvements resulting in a well-organized bone matrix were observed in preclinical studies, suggesting that Polygonatum sibiricum leaf extract holds potential therapeutic value for treating osteoporosis. The anti-osteoporosis activity of Polygonatum polysaccharides has been confirmed in in vitro and animal experiments, consistent with its traditional use for bone and musculoskeletal weakness.

Evidence strength: Anti-osteoporosis evidence is confined to preclinical (in vitro and animal) studies.

4.9 Respiratory and Anti-inflammatory Effects

The rhizomes of Polygonatum verticillatum demonstrated tracheorelaxant and anti-inflammatory effects, which may support its medicinal use in hyperactive airway complaints and inflammatory disorders. In isolated guinea-pig tracheal preparations, the crude rhizome extract caused complete inhibition of high K⁺ (80 mM) and carbachol-induced contractions, and was more potent against K⁺ than carbachol, similar to verapamil. Pretreatment displaced the Ca²⁺ concentration-response curves to the right, indicating Ca²⁺ channel blocking-like activity. When tested on carrageenan-induced rat paw edema, the extract demonstrated a marked reduction in edema with 65.22% protection at 200 mg/kg, similar to aspirin.

Evidence strength: These are isolated organ and animal studies. No clinical trials on respiratory conditions have been published.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Polygonatum

Polygonatum sibiricum polysaccharides (PSP) have many pharmacological applications and biological activities, including antioxidant activity, anti-aging activity, anti-fatigue effect, immunity enhancement effect, antibacterial effect, anti-inflammatory effect, hypolipidemic and antiatherosclerotic effects, anti-osteoporosis effect, liver protection, treatment of diabetes mellitus, anti-cancer effect, and may help prevent Alzheimer's disease.

• Endocrine / Metabolic system: Blood glucose regulation, insulin sensitivity, lipid-lowering
• Nervous system: Sleep quality, cognitive function, neuroprotection against oxidative stress
• Cardiovascular system: Antioxidant cardioprotection, anti-atherosclerotic potential
• Immune system: Immunomodulation, enhancement of innate immunity
• Musculoskeletal system: Bone metabolism, anti-osteoporosis
• Respiratory system: Traditional use for lung moistening and cough; preclinical bronchospasmolytic data
• Anti-aging / Longevity: Antioxidant, anti-fatigue, lifespan extension in model organisms
• Oncology (preclinical): Pro-apoptotic and cytotoxic in cancer cell lines

6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Because the vast majority of clinical evidence is either absent or consists of a very small number of human trials, the following dosages are reported strictly as they appear in published studies and regulatory submissions — not as recommendations.

• Sleep clinical trial (human): Eighty individuals with mild insomnia participated in a four-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial using PS rhizome extract at 500 mg/day.
• P. kingianum extract supplement use: A recommended use level of 1.4 g/day of P. kingianum extract powder, based on established current use levels in Chinese supplement products. Both products contain 465 to 466 mg per capsule, consumed 3 times daily. In reviewed metabolic studies, no safety-related dose-dependent adverse effects were reported at doses of up to 4 g of P. kingianum rhizome.
• In vitro (cell-based): PSP at concentrations of 50, 100, and 250 μg/ml has been used in in vitro studies of insulin resistance in adipocytes.
• Animal Alzheimer's model: PSP at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg was administered orally for 35 days in mouse Alzheimer's disease models.
• General clinical guidance: Clinical studies are lacking to provide dosing guidance.

7. Safety Considerations and Interactions

General Toxicity Profile

The rhizomes of Polygonatum plants have a low degree of toxicity after processing. Fresh rhizomes and plant parts are regarded as traditional foods, and limited studies suggest low toxicity after steaming/cooking processes. Consumption of the crude rhizome reportedly causes death in rodent studies. An estimated no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of the ethanol extract of P. sibiricum has been reported to be more than 2,000 mg/kg.

The irritation of raw (unprocessed) rhizome has been recognized in TCM for more than a millennium. Ancients identified irritation of raw Huangjing. The traditional nine-steaming-nine-drying process was developed in part to eliminate this property.

Drug Interactions

Clinical studies are lacking; based on animal studies, adjunctive effects with hypoglycemic agents are possible. This theoretical interaction is significant: individuals taking insulin or oral hypoglycemic medications may face an additive glucose-lowering effect. Information regarding adverse effects is lacking.

Pregnancy and Lactation

Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking.

Quality and Adulteration Concerns

The material basis of its efficacy is unclear and product quality is uneven, which seriously limits the rapid upgrading of the industry. Adulteration of Ayurvedic Polygonatum preparations, due to scarcity of the P. verticillatum plant, has been documented, and a method of identification and quantification has been described. This represents a meaningful quality control concern for commercial preparations.

Cancer Biology Note

Polygonatum extracts are known to induce both apoptosis and autophagy in cancer cells; however, effects on normal cells are unclear. This bidirectional cellular activity warrants caution in individuals with active malignancies until more targeted research is available.

Overall Evidence Assessment

In vitro and animal studies suggest potential applications in diabetes, osteoporosis, cancer, cardiovascular risk factors, and CNS and immune disorders; however, clinical studies are lacking to recommend use for any indication. The sole area with a published randomized human clinical trial is mild insomnia, where a single small trial (n = 80) demonstrated benefit with 500 mg/day of the dried rhizome extract over four weeks. For all other indications, evidence currently does not extend beyond preclinical models.

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