Safed musli

Other Names

Anthericum tuberosumAsparagopsis adscendensAsparagus adscendensAsparagus adscendens Roxb.Asparagus satawurBili mushaliChlorophytum arundinaceumChlorophytum borivilianumChlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & A.Fern.Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & R.R.Fern.Chlorophytum breviscapumChlorophytum tuberosumDholi musaliDholi musliDivya aushadGavaliHiranyapushpiJhirnaKhairuwaKhaliniKharjuriMahavrushaMusaliMusliPaleesamuPhalangium ornithogaloidesProtasparagus adscendensSafed musaliSallogaddaSanjeevani VithaiShwet musaliShweta musaliShweta musliSwetha musliTalamuliTalapatraTalapatriTalmuliTalpatriTaniravi thangTella nela tadiUjali musliVrushakandaVrusya kandhaWhite goldWhite musli

Synopsis

Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau and Fernandes (family Liliaceae) is an endangered geophyte with a broad traditional history and medicinal importance. It is commonly known as "safed musli" in Hindi, a name meaning "white tubers." Other vernacular names include Dholi Musli, Khiruva, Shedheveli, and Swetha Musli. In Indian systems of medicine, it is considered a "white gold" or "divya aushad" — a divine medicine.

Taxonomically, C. borivilianum is a small perennial, branched herb that belongs to the family Liliaceae (also placed in the Asparagaceae under some classification systems). It is characterized by lanceolate leaves and originates from tropical wet forests in the peninsular Indian region. The tubers are cylindrical, averaging approximately 0.9 cm in thickness and 8 cm in length, with each plant producing an average of 5–30 tubers. The inflorescence is dense with flowers arranged in a raceme; flowers are white with yellow anthers.

The genus Chlorophytum encompasses about 300 species found throughout tropical and subtropical parts of the world. In India, safed musli is found particularly in Southern Rajasthan, Northern Gujarat, and Western Madhya Pradesh. It is also cultivated in several Indian states including Chhattisgarh; it grows best in sandy loam soil with good drainage and requires tropical conditions.

It is important to note that the commercial name "safed musli" is applied to more than one species. Safed musli is a controversial drug designation and various herbs are employed under this nomenclature by practitioners of the Indian system of medicine; one of the most popular and widely marketed species is Chlorophytum borivilianum. Related species such as Chlorophytum tuberosum and Chlorophytum arundinaceum are also traded under the same or similar names. Adulteration of medicinally important Chlorophytum species (C. borivilianum, C. arundinaceum, C. laxum) with garden species such as variegated forms of C. comosum and C. capense is a recognized commercial problem.

Common Preparations and Forms

The roots are the primary medicinal part, used as a health tonic under the name safed musli, while the plant is also cultivated and eaten as a leaf vegetable in some parts of India. Safed musli is typically consumed in several forms, most commonly as a fine powder derived from dried tuberous roots or as standardized extracts encapsulated in capsules; the powder is often mixed with milk, water, or honey, which is the common traditional method of ingestion. Through the 20th century, Ayurvedic physicians began standardizing its preparations — powders (churna), pastes, and decoctions — often combining it with ashwagandha or shatavari to enhance adaptogenic effects.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Age and Origin of Use

The appreciation of the medicinal value of safed musli tubers has been documented in ancient Indian medicine literature from as early as the 11th century AD. Chlorophytum borivilianum is an integral part of Ayurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic, and Allopathic systems of medicine, where the root of the plant holds the principal place.

Ayurvedic Classification

In Ayurveda, Chlorophytum borivilianum belongs to the group of "Vajikaran Rasayana," corroborated by its rejuvenating, aphrodisiac, and natural sex tonic properties and its effectiveness in alleviating sexual disorders. The Indian system of medicine, Ayurveda, conceptualizes a category of drug activity known as "Rasayana," a word composed of "Rasa" meaning elixir and "Ayana" meaning house — signifying a property that helps to rejuvenate the system, i.e., adaptogenic activity. "Rasayan" therapy is believed to prevent diseases and counteract the aging process by means of optimization or homeostasis.

Safed musli has been described in ancient Indian literature such as the Bhavaprakash Nighantu, Rasendra Sarsangrah, and Raja Ballabh Nighantu as "Vajikaran" or aphrodisiac, which is classified as a special type of immunomodulator. The roots of C. borivilianum are employed as a constituent of "Chyawanprash," an outstanding classical rejuvenative formula.

Ethnic and Community Use

The knowledge on indigenous uses of Chlorophytum borivilianum has been mostly passed through oral communication from generation to generation in local spoken languages and left undocumented by various communities. Recent surveys in different states of India revealed that ethnic communities of Aravali Hills, Rajasthan (Meena), Mizoram (Mizo), Maharashtra (Pawra and Thakar), and Madhya Pradesh (Korku and Bharia) have traditionally employed this plant.

Traditional Preparations and Indications

Traditionally, safed musli is considered a general health-promotive tonic and has been used to treat various male sexual disorders. It was used in the treatment of rheumatism; the leaves were consumed as a vegetable, and it was used as an expectorant, in various culinary preparations, and as a herbal remedy for knee pain. Root powder was used to increase lactation among feeding mothers and lactating cows. In addition, stem, seeds, and rhizomes were used in Indian and Unani traditional medical remedies for treatment of spermatorrhoea, chronic leucorrhoea, diarrhoea, dysentery, general debility, senile pruritus, asthma, and fatigue.

It has been an essential part of a traditional diet of mothers after delivery, prepared in the form of "Laddoos" (sweetened confections). Its root powder is fried in ghee and chewed in cases of aphthae of the mouth and throat.

3. Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Proximate Composition

The roots of Chlorophytum borivilianum contain approximately 42% carbohydrate, 8–9% protein, 3–4% fibre, and 2–17% saponin. The plant is a rich source of over 25 alkaloids, vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, steroids, saponins, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phenol, resins, mucilage, and polysaccharides, and also contains high quantities of simple sugars, mainly sucrose, glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose, and xylose.

Steroidal Saponins (Primary Bioactive Compounds)

Major phytochemical components reported from the roots include steroidal saponins, fructans and fructooligosaccharides (FOS), acetylated mannans, phenolic compounds, and proteins. Steroidal saponins are considered to be the principal bioactive components responsible for the pharmacological properties.

Borivilianosides — furostane-type steroidal saponins — have been isolated and characterized from this plant. Four new spirostane-type saponins named borivilianosides E–H were isolated from an ethanol extract of the roots of Chlorophytum borivilianum, together with two known steroid saponins. Four furostanol steroidal saponins — borivilianosides A, B, C, and D — have also been obtained; the sugar moieties present in borivilianosides A and B were identified as glucose, galactose, and rhamnose, while borivilianosides C and D showed the presence of glucose, galactose, and xylose.

One sterol, stigmasterol, has been isolated. One new furostanol saponin named Chlorophytoside-I has also been characterized from the roots. The root also contains steroidal and triterpenoidal saponins, sapogenins, and fructans, which act as therapeutic agents and play a vital role in many therapeutic applications.

Polysaccharide Fraction

The polysaccharide fraction (CBP) derived from hot-water extraction comprises approximately 31% inulin-type fructans and approximately 25% acetylated mannans (of the hot-water-soluble extract). Extensive phytochemical evaluation of the roots led to the quantification of nearly 60% w/w of polysaccharides in the hot-water-soluble material, found to be mainly fructans and acetylated mannans. These polysaccharide fractions have been separately investigated for immunomodulatory potential.

Phytochemical Limitations

Although several saponins, sapogenins, and furostane and spirostane glycosides have been isolated in recent years, studies on secondary metabolites of Chlorophytum borivilianum are generally considered scanty. Phytochemical examinations carried out are limited, and most compounds (saponins) have been isolated merely from the butanol fraction of ethanol root extract. There is acknowledged scope to investigate different extracts and other parts of the plant, such as leaves and flowers.

4. Pharmacological Mechanisms of Action

Proposed mechanisms are largely derived from preclinical (animal and in vitro) studies. The following represent areas with published experimental data.

Androgenic and Spermatogenic Activity

Animal research shows that safed musli might have anti-inflammatory effects and might increase sexual activity, possibly having effects similar to testosterone — but this research is described as preliminary. After experimental antiandrogen treatment, the pituitary-testicular axis was deviated negatively and affected by oxidative stress and apoptosis-mediated processes; co-administration of C. borivilianum root extract enhanced male reproductive potentiality and prevented these negative deviations by increasing oxidative defence and maintaining homeostasis in testicular apoptosis.

In diabetic rat models, C. borivilianum root extract was found to prevent impairment in sperm characteristics and morphology via preventing elevation of oxidative stress, apoptosis, and free radical levels; these effects may be achieved through maintaining sperm antioxidant levels related to the free radical scavenging activity of phenolic compounds in the root extract.

Immunomodulatory Activity

In animal studies, ethanolic root extract and its sapogenin were evaluated for immunomodulatory activity. Effects on azathioprine-induced myelosuppression and hematological/serological parameters were assessed. Administration greatly improved survival against Candida albicans infection. An increase in delayed-type hypersensitivity response (DTH), percentage neutrophil adhesion, and in vivo phagocytosis was observed. The extract was found not only to potentiate non-specific immune response, but also to improve humoral as well as cell-mediated immunity.

The polysaccharide fraction of C. borivilianum (comprising inulin-type fructans and acetylated mannans) was evaluated for its effect on natural killer (NK) cell activity in vitro; human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were tested in the presence or absence of varying concentrations of C. borivilianum fractions for modulation of NK cell cytotoxic activity toward K562 cells.

Anti-stress and Antioxidant Activity

In an animal study, aqueous extract of C. borivilianum at 250 mg/kg for 7 days significantly reverted elevated levels of plasma glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, and serum corticosterone, and also reduced the ulcer index and adrenal gland weight, as effectively as the standard drug diazepam in rats. At 125 mg/kg, it showed mild anti-stress activity. Under in vitro DPPH free radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation assays, the extract considerably inhibited, in a dose-dependent manner, the levels of DPPH free radicals and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, showing significant antioxidant property.

Anti-inflammatory Activity

The roots are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of arthritis and inflammation. The anti-inflammatory activity of isolated saponins from C. borivilianum (ISCB) was evaluated using the carrageenan-induced paw edema, histamine-induced paw edema, cotton pellet-induced granuloma, and Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats, at orally administered doses of 3, 10, and 30 mg/kg. It was concluded that saponins isolated from C. borivilianum possess anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic properties, and that they may act by inhibiting histamine, prostaglandin, and histone deacetylase (HDAC).

Antidiabetic Activity

Preliminary findings reported that C. borivilianum could induce acute reduction of blood glucose levels in diabetic rats; additionally, root aqueous extract was shown to cause significant reduction in blood glucose, triglycerides, and cholesterol levels in rats exposed to cold stress, and also to display in vitro antioxidant activity. In streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat studies, C. borivilianum root extract treatment maintained near-normal body weight, blood glucose, HbA1c, lipid profile, and insulin levels, with higher HOMA-β cell functioning index, number of islets per pancreas, and number of β-cells per islet compared to non-treated diabetic rats. All such data are from animal models and should not be extrapolated directly to humans.

Anticancer Activity (In Vitro / Preliminary)

The anticancer activity of saponin fractions of C. borivilianum has been investigated using MTT and SRB methods to evaluate antiproliferative activity of methanolic and crude saponin extracts; DNA fragmentation assays were carried out to confirm antiproliferative activity, with findings suggesting that the crude saponin extract has potential anticancer activity as evidenced by inhibition percentages. The cytotoxicity of borivilianosides F, G, and H was evaluated using two human colon cancer cell lines (HT-29 and HCT 116). These findings are in vitro only and have not been replicated in human clinical studies.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Male Sexual Function and Fertility

This is the most studied area for safed musli and encompasses both animal research and a small number of human studies.

Animal evidence: A standardized extract of root of safed musli was evaluated for aphrodisiac potential and safety profile on the reproductive system, with Wistar albino rats trained to provide sexual experience under a dim red light. Dosing of extract was carried out for 54 days at 125 and 250 mg/kg orally in male rats. Safed musli at both dose levels enhanced sexual vigour and libido, and both doses showed an increase in sperm count and sperm motility, indicating spermatogenic potential beneficial in treating oligospermia. After 54 days, there was an increase in sperm abnormality (%) at both doses, but not more than 10%, indicating that the formulation did not induce infertility.

The spermatogenesis and androgenesis augmentative efficacy of hydromethanolic (40:60) root extract of C. borivilianum was investigated against cyproterone acetate-induced subfertility in Wistar strain male albino rats, with the extract administered at 400 mg/kg gastric intubation twice daily for 35 days.

Human/clinical evidence: Studies in humans indicate possible improvements in sperm parameters and testosterone levels, but sample sizes are small and methodologies vary. No large-scale, high-quality clinical trials have definitively proven its efficacy for treating infertility in humans. Although strong human studies are limited, clinical observations show possible improvements in libido, sexual desire, stamina, and oligospermia.

Evidence strength: Predominantly preclinical (animal). The small body of human evidence is insufficient for drawing definitive conclusions. The analysis of previous pharmacological investigations suggested a lack of substantial scientific evidence in various studies, which do not stand the test of critical assessment.

5.2 Adaptogenic Activity and Physical Performance

This area contains the strongest human evidence available for safed musli. A prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical study was initiated after ethics committee approval to study the adaptogenic effect of Chlorophytum borivilianum (CB) on physical performance in healthy volunteers; consented volunteers (n = 60) were assigned randomly into two groups receiving study drug (3 g/day) or placebo (3 g/day) for 2 months. They were evaluated at days 0, 30, and 60 with physical stressors including the 6-minute walk test (6MWT), 6-minute exercise test (6ETC), fixed workload test (FWT) on a cycle ergometer, and Jammar's dynamometer handgrip strength test.

CB increased physical performance when exposed to accustomed activity even after one month, and in the case of unaccustomed activity, an increase in performance was seen when CB was administered for two months, thus validating its adaptogenic (anti-stress) potential. Separately, early research suggests that taking safed musli for 2 months might increase walking and cycling speed in healthy people. However, early research also shows that taking safed musli for 2 months does not seem to increase hand grip strength in healthy people.

Evidence strength: One small, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled human trial (n = 60) exists. Results are positive but require replication in larger, independent studies before firm conclusions can be drawn.

5.3 Immunomodulation

Animal and in vitro studies suggest the extract not only potentiates non-specific immune response, but is also effective in improving humoral as well as cell-mediated immunity. Significant stimulation of NK cell activity has been shown to be due to the polysaccharide fraction (CBP) of C. borivilianum in vitro. These results have been considered to justify the traditional use of C. borivilianum as a rasayana drug.

Evidence strength: Primarily animal and in vitro studies. No controlled human clinical trials specifically examining immune endpoints have been identified in peer-reviewed literature.

5.4 Anti-inflammatory and Anti-arthritic Activity

In rat models, isolated saponins from C. borivilianum (ISCB) were tested at orally administered doses of 3, 10, and 30 mg/kg using established animal models of acute and chronic inflammation and arthritis; the effect on histone deacetylase (HDAC) level was measured at the highest dose (30 mg/kg). It was concluded that isolated saponins from C. borivilianum possess anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic properties.

Evidence strength: Preclinical animal studies only. No human clinical trials addressing arthritis or inflammation endpoints have been identified.

5.5 Antidiabetic Activity

In a study using streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, C. borivilianum root extract treatment maintained near-normal body weight, blood glucose, HbA1c, lipid profile, and insulin levels; negative correlations between serum insulin and blood glucose, HbA1c, triglyceride, and total cholesterol levels were observed; root extract administration prevented increases in lipid peroxidation and decreases in superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity levels with mild histopathological changes in the pancreas.

Evidence strength: Animal studies only. No human clinical trials addressing glycemic endpoints have been identified in peer-reviewed sources.

5.6 Galactogogue (Lactation-Promoting) Activity

Root powder is reported in traditional use to increase lactation in feeding mothers and lactating cows. It has been an essential part of a traditional postnatal diet for mothers in the form of "Laddoos." Breastfeeding is listed among the conditions for which safed musli has been used, but more evidence is needed to rate safed musli for this use.

Evidence strength: Traditional and ethnobotanical records only. No human clinical trials assessing lactation outcomes have been identified.

6. Body Systems Associated with Safed Musli

Male reproductive system: Traditionally, safed musli root has been used to treat male impotence, oligozoospermia, and erectile dysfunction.
Immune system: Reported therapeutic properties include immunomodulatory and antimutagenic activity.
Musculoskeletal system: It has been used for rheumatism and joint pains.
Endocrine/metabolic system: The plant has been reported to possess antidiabetic and hypolipidemic activities.
Gastrointestinal system: It has been used in conditions such as diarrhea and dysentery.
Postpartum/lactation: It has been incorporated in postnatal dietary preparations for mothers after delivery.
Central nervous system/stress axis: Aqueous extract has been shown to revert elevated serum corticosterone and reduce adrenal gland weight in animal stress models.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

No universally agreed-upon standardized dose has been established in the scientific literature. The following are dosages reported in specific studies or contexts:

In the randomized, placebo-controlled human study on physical performance, the dose used was 3 g/day for 2 months.
In diabetic rat studies, aqueous root extract was administered at 250 and 500 mg/kg/day for 28 consecutive days.
In the aphrodisiac evaluation study in rats, standardized extract was dosed at 125 and 250 mg/kg orally for 54 days.
Anti-stress studies in animal models used single oral doses of 30, 100, and 300 mg/kg.
The aqueous extract anti-stress animal study used a dose of 250 mg/kg for 7 days.
Traditional practitioners often suggest a daily intake of raw root powder ranging from 3 to 5 grams, although some studies have used higher amounts, up to 10 grams per day.

There is currently not enough scientific information to determine an appropriate standardized dose range for safed musli in humans.

8. Safety Considerations

General Safety Profile

Safed musli root is considered possibly safe when taken by mouth in medicinal amounts for up to 60 days. In an acute toxicity study conducted according to OECD guideline 425, no signs of toxicity were observed in tested animals up to a dose of 3000 mg/kg/day.

Reported Adverse Effects

Side effects reported are typically mild, involving gastrointestinal discomfort such as stomach upset or bloating, especially at excessive doses. The studies available on toxicity, safety, and quality of Chlorophytum borivilianum are widely acknowledged as inadequate for providing comprehensive information on commercial utilization.

Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

There is not enough reliable information to determine whether safed musli is safe to use when pregnant or breastfeeding. Based on this absence of data, its use during pregnancy is not supported by current evidence.

Potential Drug Interactions

Individuals taking medications for blood pressure or blood sugar should use caution due to the herb's potential effects on these parameters. The antidiabetic activity observed in animal studies raises the theoretical concern of additive hypoglycemic effects when combined with antidiabetic medications.

Adulteration and Quality Concerns

Due to its high economic value, Chlorophytum borivilianum has encountered a significant problem of adulteration with closely resembling, medicinally inferior species. Adulteration of medicinally important Chlorophytum species with garden species is a recognized problem, and identification of these species in herbal formulations is difficult on the basis of phenotypic characters alone. This creates a meaningful quality-control concern for consumers and practitioners.

Conservation Status

Overharvesting has reduced wild populations of safed musli, leading to its classification as endangered in several regions. The increased commercial exploitation of C. borivilianum and low productivity of this endangered plant has raised concerns over its conservation; efforts have been proposed to standardize, encourage, and popularize its cultivation as a commercial crop. Conservation efforts currently include promoting sustainable cultivation and discouraging wild collection.

9. Overall Evidence Assessment

Modern pharmacological studies of Chlorophytum borivilianum have demonstrated a wide range of pharmacological activities, most importantly aphrodisiac, immunomodulatory, and anticancer activities. However, the overall evidence base must be characterized candidly. The analysis of previous pharmacological investigations suggests a lack of substantial scientific evidence in various studies, which do not stand the test of critical assessment. The vast majority of research on safed musli has been conducted in animal models or in vitro cell systems. The single well-designed, randomized, placebo-controlled human trial (n = 60) addresses only adaptogenic/physical performance endpoints. No large-scale, high-quality clinical trials have definitively proven its efficacy for treating infertility in humans, nor for other frequently cited uses such as diabetes management, arthritis, or immune enhancement. Larger, well-controlled human studies are necessary before any of these uses can be validated.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Safed musli may help support.

Libido & Sexual Vitality (Men's)Traditional
Safed musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) is an Ayurvedic herb traditionally used as a vajikarana (aphrodisiac) and rasayana to enhance male sexual vigor, sperm production, and libido. Preliminary animal studies and small clinical trials support its androgenic and pro-sexual effects attributed to saponins and alkaloids, though robust human RCT evidence is limited.

Body Systems

Body systems that Safed musli may help support.

No body systems available.