IngredientsTerpenoids, found in almost all classes of living organisms, represent the largest group of natural compounds and have an extraordinary structural diversity, being derived from carbon backbones of 2-methylbuta-1,3-diene (isoprene units, C5) rearranged into linear and cyclic structures. The term "terpenoid" is used interchangeably with "isoprenoid" in the scientific literature. Terpenoids (also called "isoprenoids") are secondary metabolites occurring in most organisms, particularly plants. Structurally, terpenoids are formed from several 5-carbon entities called isoprene units. They are widely distributed in nature, classified based on the number of isoprene units and the structure of their carbon rings, and include various oxygenated derivatives such as alcohols and ketones.
Currently, over 80,000 terpenoid compounds have been identified and are widely used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. A large-scale bibliometric search conducted for a 2024 comprehensive review found a total of 177,633 published papers indexed in the National Library of Medicine and PubMed using the keyword "terpenoids," of which 196 original and review papers were included according to criteria of scientific reliability, completeness, and relevance.
Terpenoids are classified as monoterpenes (2 C-5 units), sesquiterpenes (3 C-5 units), diterpenes (4 C-5 units), triterpenes (6 C-5 units), and so forth, and are categorized into six fundamental classes: tocopherols, taxanes, ingenanes, artemisinins, sterols, and cannabinoids. A more granular scheme recognizes further subgroups: according to their chemical skeleton, terpenoids are further classified as monoterpenoids, hemiterpenoids, iridoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, sesterterpenoids, triterpenoids, and polyterpenoids.
The major classes and representative examples include:
Terpenoids are a very prominent class of natural compounds produced in diverse genera of plants, fungi, algae, and sponges. They gained significant pharmaceutical value since prehistoric times, due to their broad spectrum of medical applications. Terpenoids are a vast class of organic chemicals, with over 80,000 unique compounds identified across the plant, animal, and microbial kingdoms. These molecules are primarily found in plants, where they serve specialized functions beyond fundamental growth and reproduction. They are responsible for many sensory qualities, including the characteristic aromas of pine forests, the refreshing zest of citrus fruits, and the vibrant colors of many flowers and vegetables.
A comprehensive terpenoid database compiled from over 10,000 reference papers found 6,383 terpenoids obtained from 1,254 distinct plant species. Notable botanical sources of medicinal terpenoids include Cannabis sativa, Artemisia annua, Salvia miltiorrhiza, Ginkgo biloba, and Taxus media. The fragrant leaves of Eucalyptus trees are also a rich source of terpenoids. Medicinal plants accumulate terpenoids in a variety of tissues: many medicinal plants like those containing citral (neral and geranial mixture) and carvacrol have terpenoids abundantly in parts including flowers, stems, roots, branches, bark, fruits, and leaves.
Terpenoids form the basis of essential oils and have long been used in traditional remedies, perfumes, and spices. Commercial and research preparations include: terpenes and their derivatives comprising hydrocarbons are usually found in essential oils (EOs). Standardized botanical extracts (e.g., Boswellia serrata extract standardized for AKBA content, Ginkgo biloba extract standardized for ginkgolide content), isolated pure terpenoid compounds (e.g., paclitaxel for injection, artemisinin derivatives as oral tablets), topical formulations (creams, ointments), and encapsulated dietary supplements are the most common modern dosage forms. Plant terpenoids are widely used as industrially relevant chemicals, including many pharmaceuticals, flavours, fragrances, pesticides and disinfectants, and as large-volume feedstocks for chemical industries.
The naturally produced plant-derived compounds known as phytochemicals are biologically effective and incorporated to reduce the risk of numerous human illnesses. The utilization of phytochemicals for traditional medicine or functional nutrition has likely existed for as long as human history itself. Terpenoids are a very prominent class of natural compounds produced in diverse genera of plants, fungi, algae, and sponges, and they gained significant pharmaceutical value since prehistoric times, due to their broad spectrum of medical applications.
The therapeutic utilization of fragrant plants has been recorded in old natural messages such as "De Materia Medica" composed by the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides in the main century of the common era. The aromatic and resinous properties of many terpenoid-rich plant materials — including frankincense (boswellic acids), pine resin (monoterpenes), and eucalyptus — were recognized for their therapeutic value in these traditions.
Terpenoids, the largest group of phytochemicals, have traditionally been used for medicinal purposes in India and China. In Ayurvedic medicine, Boswellia serrata (Indian frankincense, known as "Shallaki") has a well-documented history of use for inflammatory joint conditions, respiratory diseases, and intestinal disorders. Boswellic acid is the active ingredient in Boswellia serrata; it has shown significant pharmacological activity in the treatment of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and chronic inflammatory bowel diseases (ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease). Andrographolide, a diterpenoid lactone from Andrographis paniculata, is central to both Ayurvedic and traditional Southeast Asian medicine: the most promising terpene compound for treating diabetes is called andrographolide, which is a diterpenoid lactone that forms the major component of the leaves of the small herbaceous plant A. paniculata, an Asian plant that has already been reported to be used in traditional medicines for its therapeutic nature.
TCM has employed terpenoid-rich plants for millennia. Artemisia annua (Qinghao), the source of artemisinin, was recorded in Chinese medical texts as early as the 2nd century BCE. Ginkgo biloba leaf preparations have been used in TCM for thousands of years for respiratory conditions and cognitive function. Ginsenosides — a class of triterpenoid saponins from Panax ginseng — have been core to TCM practice for centuries. Folk medicine has always been an eye-opener for designing novel drugs for diseases. Almost three-fourths of the plant-based drugs were created based on the knowledge of folk medicine.
Several Cecropia species have been used for centuries in traditional medicine in Mexico and Central and South America to treat conditions such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and wound healing, among others. The terpene-rich resin from trees such as copal (Bursera species) was used by Mesoamerican cultures both ritually and medicinally for anti-inflammatory and wound-healing purposes. Yew bark preparations containing taxane diterpenoids were used by certain indigenous North American peoples, although their extreme toxicity limited formal use.
In the eighteenth century, work on isoprenoids was started in an advanced way. The inventors of terpenes are considered to be the German chemist Otto Wallach, who received the Nobel Prize in 1910 for discovering the structural form of monoterpenes. This recognition of chemical structure bridged traditional botanical use to systematic scientific investigation and ultimately pharmacological development.
The MEP pathway produces monoterpenes including linalool, myrcene, and limonene, as well as their derivatives. Menthol (from Mentha species) acts as a TRPM8 receptor agonist, producing cooling sensations and mild analgesic effects. Carvacrol and thymol, found in oregano and thyme essential oils, are among the most studied monoterpenes for antimicrobial activity. 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), the dominant component of eucalyptus oil, is recognised for its expectorant and bronchodilatory properties. Limonene (citrus peel) has been studied for chemoprevention. Research has begun providing evidence on the potential use of certain plant-derived terpenes in modern medicine, demonstrating anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects of these compounds.
Artemisinin is a sesquiterpene lactone compound isolated from Artemisia annua Linn in the 1970s. β-Caryophyllene, a bicyclic sesquiterpene commonly found in a variety of plant essential oils, demonstrates notable biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. Its ability to selectively activate the CB2 cannabinoid receptor allows it to modulate immune responses and reduce inflammation without causing psychoactive effects. Ginsenosides (triterpenoid saponins classified broadly under sesquiterpene-related pathways) from Panax ginseng exhibit diverse immunomodulatory and neuroprotective activities. The major components of Valeriana extracts are sesquiterpenoids: the major components of Valeriana extracts are terpenoids called maaliol, patchouli alcohol, and 8-acetoxypatchouli alcohol; the terpenoid-less extract of Valeriana was found to be devoid of antidepressant activity, indicating that terpenes are the active components involved in reducing depression.
Paclitaxel (taxol) is the most clinically significant diterpenoid. Paclitaxel is a potent anticancer drug that originates from the tree Taxus brevifolia. Paclitaxel has several derivatives, namely docetaxel and cabazitaxel. These agents work by disrupting microtubule assembling dynamics and inducing cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase of the cell cycle, ultimately triggering apoptosis. The ginkgolides from Ginkgo biloba are a structurally unique group of diterpenoids: ginkgolides are terpenoid compounds unique to ginkgo, with significant preventive and therapeutic effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Ginkgolides and bilobalide are absorbed as parent compounds, being readily detectable in human plasma soon after oral administration.
Triterpenoids are the metabolites of isopentenyl phosphate oligomers and constitute the largest group of phytochemicals with more than 20,000 known compounds available in nature. Key pharmacologically active triterpenoids include:
Lycopene, β-carotene, lutein, and astaxanthin are among the most studied tetraterpene carotenoids. These compounds act primarily as antioxidants and are associated with cardiovascular and eye health. Lycopene, the red pigment in tomatoes, has reached Phase II clinical trials for prostate cancer.
The biosynthetic pathway of terpenoids is a complex and sophisticated process, including precursor synthesis, skeleton synthesis, and subsequent modification steps. There are two isoprenoid precursor biosynthetic pathways in nature: the mevalonate pathway (MVA pathway), which utilizes acetyl-CoA in the cytoplasm as the starting substrate, and the methylerythritol 4-phosphate pathway (MEP pathway), which uses 3-phosphoglycerate and pyruvate in plastids as the starting substrates. Through these two pathways, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and its isomer dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), which are the basic building blocks of terpenoids, can be synthesized.
The MVA pathway includes six steps of enzymatic reactions, providing precursors for sesquiterpenes, phytosterols, and triterpenoids such as brassinolide and ubiquinones in the mitochondria. In plants, isoprene biosynthesis uniquely involves both the MVA pathway and the MEP pathway, contrasting with the single-pathway utilization observed in other organisms such as animals, fungi, and most bacteria.
Terpenoids accumulate in plant tissues or are released as volatiles in response to the ever-changing environment, playing essential roles in chemo-ecological functions as defense against pathogen and insects, improving pollination and seed dispersal, and facilitating plant-to-plant communication.
Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) has been shown to inhibit the NF-κB pathway, thereby reducing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), chemokines, and inflammatory enzymes such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). The inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) by boswellic acids is a well-characterized mechanism that reduces leukotriene biosynthesis, providing a different anti-inflammatory target from conventional NSAIDs. Ginsenoside-Rb1 (G-Rb1) can significantly inhibit the activation of NF-κB (a key factor in inflammation, and also a regulatory factor of the production of TNF-α).
Some terpenoids exhibit an anticancer effect by triggering various stages of cancer progression — for example, suppressing the early stage of tumorigenesis via induction of cell cycle arrest, inhibiting cancer cell differentiation, and activating apoptosis. At the late stage of cancer development, certain terpenoids are able to inhibit angiogenesis and metastasis via modulation of different intracellular signaling pathways. Paclitaxel's mechanism is particularly well characterized: it promotes tubulin assembly into microtubules and inhibits depolymerization to free tubulin, thus blocking cells in the M phase of the cell cycle.
Terpenes and their derivatives comprising hydrocarbons are usually found in essential oils. They have been reported to have potent antimicrobial activity, exhibiting bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects against tested pathogens. The primary mechanism of action of most terpenes against bacteria involves disruption of bacterial membrane integrity and interference with membrane-dependent processes. Terpenoids can enhance the antimicrobial efficacy of antibiotics; functional group modifications and complex formations suggest that these interactions may contribute to synergistic effects, supporting the potential use of terpenoid-antibiotic combinations in overcoming antibiotic resistance.
Inflammation is a hallmark of several deleterious effects on cells, including those of the nervous system. Therefore, terpenoids have been widely associated with neuroprotection, although the exact mechanisms involved are still poorly understood. The PI3K/Akt signaling pathway is frequently implicated. β-Caryophyllene demonstrates notable biological activities including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. Its ability to selectively activate the CB2 cannabinoid receptor allows it to modulate immune responses and reduce inflammation without causing psychoactive effects. Recent research has emphasized its neuroprotective and metabolic regulatory functions. Ginkgolides act by inhibiting platelet activating factor (PAF): ginkgolide B is a powerful inhibitor of platelet activating factor (PAF), binding to its membrane receptors and antagonizing platelet aggregation; it also has an anti-inflammatory effect by decreasing vascular permeability and has vasodilator activity by inhibiting the liberation of thromboxane B2 and prostaglandins.
Artemisinin is a sesquiterpene lactone compound isolated from Artemisia annua Linn in the 1970s. It is the most effective antimalarial drug after pyrimethamine, chloroquine, and primaquine and has the characteristics of low toxicity and high efficiency. Later, antimalarial drugs such as artesunate, arteether, and artemether have been synthesized by modifying the chemical structure of artemisinin. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are now the WHO first-line treatment for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria and represent one of the strongest clinical evidence bases for any terpenoid-derived drug. The evidence for artemisinin-class compounds in malaria is rated as high-quality, based on numerous randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews.
Evidence strength: Strong (robust clinical trial evidence; WHO-endorsed first-line therapy).
Paclitaxel, a diterpenoid isolated from the bark of Taxus brevifolia Nutt, and its derivatives such as nanopaclitaxel and docetaxel have completed phases I, II, III, and IV of clinical trials for the treatment of breast, ovarian, and endometrial cancers. The FDA approved paclitaxel for the treatment of refractory ovarian cancer in 1992, refractory breast cancer in 1994, Kaposi's sarcoma in 1997, and non-small cell lung cancer in 1998. Docetaxel, a semi-synthetic derivative of paclitaxel, showed greater effectiveness than paclitaxel in certain instances. The FDA authorized docetaxel for the treatment of advanced breast cancer in 1996, non-small pulmonary cancer in 1999, metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer in 2004, and head and neck cancer in 2006.
Regarding other terpenoids in oncology, ursolic acid, a pentacyclic triterpenoid widely found in different species of plants, has completed Phase II clinical trials for the treatment of solid tumors. Lycopene, a carotenoid-type terpene majorly found in red fruits and vegetables, has completed a Phase II clinical trial for the treatment of hormone-resistant prostate cancer. Most of the studies on natural plant extracts in the treatment of breast cancer are small-scale clinical trials or in vitro experiments, lacking large-scale and long-term clinical research data support. A large number of in vitro studies demonstrate the cytotoxicity of terpenoid molecules against various liver cancer cells, yet very few compounds have been evaluated in preclinical animal models of liver cancer. The same follows suit for those natural terpenoid compounds effectively tested in animal models moving up to Phase I clinical trials.
Evidence strength: Strong for paclitaxel/docetaxel (regulatory approval, large RCTs); preliminary to moderate for other triterpenoids (Phase I–II trials, predominantly preclinical data).
Clinical studies have shown that Boswellia serrata extract not only has anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritis properties, but also improves pain and physical function; in vitro experiments also show that Boswellia serrata extract can inhibit the expression of inflammatory factors such as adhesion molecules.
A pilot, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial conducted in 48 patients with knee osteoarthritis demonstrated clinically meaningful outcomes: a total of 48 patients with osteoarthritis of the knee were randomized and allocated to BSE and placebo groups. Patients were administered BSE or placebo for a period of 120 days. The trial results revealed that BSE treatment significantly improved the physical function of patients by reducing pain and stiffness compared with placebo. Radiographic assessments showed improved knee joint gap and reduced osteophytes (spur), confirming the efficacy of BSE treatment. BSE also significantly reduced the serum levels of high-sensitive C-reactive protein, a potential inflammatory marker associated with OA of the knee. No serious adverse events were reported.
An important limitation of much of the existing clinical evidence is that despite the substantial progress in preclinical studies, clinical research has not kept pace, particularly in the form of RCTs utilizing purified BAs such as AKBA and KBA. Most existing clinical studies have employed Boswellia serrata extract as the intervention, which contains a complex mixture of metabolites with undefined BA content. This complexity makes it difficult to attribute therapeutic effects specifically to BAs, thereby limiting the translation of mechanistic findings to human applications.
A systematic review and meta-analysis further confirmed that while some RCTs have shown that BSE may provide clinical benefits for conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis, and asthma, these studies are often limited by small sample sizes, variable control settings, short follow-up periods, and a lack of biomarker validation — rendering the evidence insufficient for firm conclusions.
Evidence strength: Moderate — multiple clinical trials suggest benefit for knee OA and some inflammatory conditions, but methodological limitations (small sample sizes, heterogeneous extracts) prevent definitive conclusions.
Ginkgolide and bilobalide, which are G. biloba leaf extracts, offer diverse pharmaceutical benefits including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of these compounds are crucial for mitigating neurodegeneration, particularly in diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, their effectiveness in countering oxidative stress and inflammation highlights their potential to prevent cardiovascular ailments.
A review of 13 clinical trials examining phytocompounds in neurological conditions found that among terpenoids, ginkgolides and limonene were evaluated. The gathered evidence underscores that ginkgolides and other phytochemicals are primarily anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective, counteracting neuroinflammation, neuronal oxidation, and synaptic dysfunctions, which are crucial aspects of neurodegenerative disease intervention in various conditions such as Alzheimer's and other dementias, depression, and neuropsychiatric disorders.
There are several studies reporting the bioactivities of ginkgolides for the treatment of epilepsy, improving the memory and learning ability, and management of metabolic disorders and cardiovascular problems.
Evidence strength: Moderate — Ginkgo biloba extract has a reasonable clinical evidence base, including multiple RCTs for dementia-related symptoms and cognitive decline, though effect sizes are generally modest and not all trials show benefit. The clinical data specifically isolating ginkgolide terpenoids (as opposed to the full extract) remains limited.
Despite a number of published in vitro reports pertaining to terpene antimicrobial testing, incorporation of various terpenes in clinical trials focusing on antimicrobial activity is still lacking due to insufficient data on the in vivo system. Most in vivo testing for terpenes and their derivatives has been conducted for human health associated with anti-inflammatory, anti-tumorigenic, anti-cancer, transdermal delivery medium, and neuroprotective aspects. However, incorporation of terpenes into household products and cosmetics due to antibacterial properties showed increasing assurance in vivo, inhibiting multiple species of bacteria.
Evidence strength: Preliminary — antimicrobial activity is well established in vitro, but human clinical trial data are sparse; most evidence for antimicrobial use remains at the level of in vitro and animal studies.
The most promising terpene compound for treating diabetes is andrographolide, which is a diterpenoid lactone forming the major component of the leaves of Andrographis paniculata, an Asian plant that has been reported to be used in traditional medicines for its therapeutic nature. The terpenoid acts by reducing the plasma glucose and increasing the utilization of glucose by the body in diabetes mellitus animal models. Regarding boswellic acids: for the treatment of metabolic syndrome, traditional herbal medicines such as frankincense or Boswellia species have been used due to their anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-obesity, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and hypolipidemic properties. Studies suggest that ginkgolides and bilobalide have a promising impact on lipid metabolism, suggesting their significance in addressing obesity-related metabolic disorders.
Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate — preclinical evidence is strong for several terpenoids, but large-scale human RCTs in metabolic disease are lacking; existing human studies are small and often short-term.
Ginkgolides are terpenoid compounds unique to ginkgo, with significant preventive and therapeutic effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. The cardiovascular mechanism has been at least partially characterised: ginkgolide B is a powerful inhibitor of platelet activating factor (PAF), binding to its membrane receptors and antagonizing platelet aggregation; it also has an anti-inflammatory effect by decreasing vascular permeability and has vasodilator activity by inhibiting the liberation of thromboxane B2 and prostaglandins.
Evidence strength: Moderate for platelet-aggregation effects of ginkgolides (mechanistic and clinical data available); more limited and mixed for direct cardiovascular endpoints in large trials.
Betulinic acid and its derivatives have anti-HIV activity, and it is considered to be the earliest discovered pentacyclic triterpenoid compound with anti-HIV activity, which can affect the fusion between virus and cells, and also inhibit the activity of the reverse transcriptase and assembly of the virus. Oleanolic acid, dammarenolic acid, and ursolic acid also have anti-HIV activity. Terpenoids are characterized by a broad spectrum of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiprotozoal, antibacterial, and antiviral effects, along with cardioprotective and neuroprotective properties linked to their antioxidant activity.
Evidence strength: Preliminary — anti-HIV and broader antiviral data for most terpenoids are based primarily on in vitro and animal studies; human trial data are sparse.
With the deepening of research on terpenoids, it has been found that such compounds play an increasingly prominent role in the field of medicine and have various biological activities such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, antimalarial, promoting transdermal absorption, preventing and treating cardiovascular diseases, lowering blood sugar, and other effects.
Dosages vary substantially by individual compound, indication, and study design. The following dosages are reported as stated in cited sources:
The absorption and utilization rate of many terpenoids in the body is low, limiting their clinical effect. In the future, through further research, the delivery system can be optimized; new nano-carriers, liposomes, and polymer microparticles can be developed to improve the stability and bioavailability of terpenoids.
Natural terpenoids present new opportunities for the discovery of drugs with fewer side effects. As natural products, terpenoids have a wide range of biological activities, low toxic side effects, and strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, can slow down cancer-related malignant reactions, have good patient tolerance, and are potential drugs for the treatment of breast cancer. However, the general characterization of terpenoids as "safe" requires qualification, as safety data vary markedly by individual compound, dose, and preparation.
Studies showed that Boswellia serrata extract (such as 5-Loxin and Aflapin) does not have toxic side effects. The 120-day placebo-controlled trial of BSE in knee OA reported that no serious adverse events were reported. Nevertheless, clinical studies on BSE are often limited by small sample sizes, variable control settings, short follow-up periods, and a lack of biomarker validation — rendering the evidence insufficient for firm conclusions.
Paclitaxel's mechanisms of action, different formulations, molecular pathways of cancer resistance, potential risks, and other therapeutic applications have been extensively reviewed. The role of paclitaxel in hematological malignancies is explored, and potential limitations in the therapeutic use of paclitaxel at the clinical level are examined. Clinically well-established adverse effects of paclitaxel include myelosuppression, peripheral neuropathy, alopecia, hypersensitivity reactions (partly attributable to the cremophor EL vehicle), myalgia, and arthralgia. These are documented in regulatory prescribing information and extensive clinical trial literature.
Botanical supplements and herbal products are widely used by consumers for various purported health benefits, and their popularity is increasing. Some of these natural products can have adverse effects on liver function and/or interact with prescription and over-the-counter (OTC) medications. Among Chinese herbal medicines rich in terpenoids, the most frequently used toxicity classifications in the literature are hepatotoxicity and drug-induced liver injury, as well as nephrotoxicity. The most common signs of toxicity due to high medicinal plant dosages are hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, pulmonary and cardiac mildness, adult-derived respiratory distress syndrome, convulsions, and acute eosinophilic pneumonia.
The interaction of terpenoids with other drugs may also lead to reduced drug efficacy or increased side effects. Specific interactions of clinical relevance include:
One of the reasons for the limited number of preclinical liver cancer studies on triterpenoids, including lack of in vivo studies on agents which have already showed efficacy in cell culture systems, could be that most terpenoids are insoluble in aqueous media, limiting their bioavailability. After oral administration, flavonol glycosides are rapidly hydrolyzed by the intestinal microflora into aglycones and metabolized; in contrast, ginkgolides and bilobalide are absorbed as parent compounds, being readily detectable in human plasma soon after their oral administration. Poor aqueous solubility and variable oral bioavailability thus represent not only a pharmacological challenge but also a safety consideration, as formulation excipients (such as cremophor EL in paclitaxel) have their own adverse effect profiles.
Terpenoids have multi-target effects, but lack high targeting to specific cancer cells, which may affect normal cells. For the broader class of terpenoids as dietary supplements, despite a number of published in vitro reports pertaining to terpene antimicrobial testing, incorporation of various terpenes in clinical trials is still lacking due to insufficient data on the in vivo system. The scientific literature is rich with in vitro and animal data; most of the studies on natural plant extracts in the treatment of disease are small-scale clinical trials or in vitro experiments, lacking large-scale and long-term clinical research data support. The biological and chemical diversity of the terpenoid class means that safety and efficacy data for one compound cannot reliably be extrapolated to another.
Health conditions that Terpenoids may help support.
Body systems that Terpenoids may help support.
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