Bird's nest

Edible Bird's Nest (Aerodramus fuciphagus)

1. Identity: Source, Nomenclature, and Common Forms

Biological Source and Taxonomy

Edible bird's nest (EBN) is an unusual dried mucin glycoprotein produced by the swiftlet Aerodramus fuciphagus, which has been used, particularly by Asians, as a premium food and wide-spectrum health supplement for centuries. The edible-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus), also known as the white-nest swiftlet, is a small bird of the swift family found in Southeast Asia; its opaque and whitish nest is made exclusively of solidified saliva and is the main ingredient of bird's nest soup, a delicacy of Chinese cuisine. The edible-nest swiftlet was formally described in 1812 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Peter Thunberg under the binomial name Hirundo fuciphaga based on a specimen collected on the island of Java.

The most heavily harvested nests are from the edible-nest swiftlet or white-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) and the black-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus maximus). The genera Aerodramus (echolocating swiftlets) and Collocalia (non-echolocating swiftlets) are among the two groups of swiftlets known to produce valuable EBN. More than 24 species of insectivorous, echolocating swiftlets are distributed around the world, but only a few produce nests that are deemed "edible."

EBN originates primarily from Southeast Asian countries, including Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Production is mainly concentrated in areas within the "Golden Triangle" of Southeast Asia, spanning from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean to the coastal regions of Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Palawan Island in the Philippines, and the south-eastern part of China.

Nest Structure and Chemistry

EBN is a nest made from salivary secretions from a swiftlet's two sublingual salivary glands and is composed almost entirely of a glutinous material. Most nests are built during the breeding season by the male swiftlet over a period of 35 days, taking the shape of a shallow cup stuck to the cave wall, and are composed of interwoven strands of salivary cement. The major component of the nest cement is sialic acid-rich glycoproteins.

Grades, Colors, and Common Names

EBN is referred to in Chinese as Yan Wo (燕窝). It is commonly referred to as the "Caviar of the East," as it is a highly regarded food product in Eastern countries. Nests are classified commercially by source (cave or house-farmed), shape (whole cup, half-cup, strip/loose), and color (white, yellow, or red/blood nest). Traditionally, the red EBN — also known as "blood bird's nest" — commanded very high market value compared with white nest due to limited supply and the belief that it possessed higher medicinal and nutritional value; however, more recent studies have shown that the redness can be attributed to nitrate and nitrite contamination.

Commercial Forms and Preparations

EBN is sold and consumed in multiple forms. Traditional preparations involve soaking dried whole-cup or strip nests in water and slow-cooking (double-steaming or simmering) into a soup or dessert. Modern commercial products include energy drinks, instant soups, desserts, supplements, and other branded bird's-nest-derived products that have poured into the global market. Standardized extracts are also available in capsule and liquid oral supplement form, as used in clinical research.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Origins and Dynasties

The historical record of EBN for human consumption can be tracked back to about 1,500 years ago in China. As early as the Tang Dynasty, EBN was regarded as a high-grade health food and a symbol of the status of ancient dignitaries. In the Yuan Dynasty, Ming Jia described the nature of EBN in Food Instructions, indicating that people were already eating EBN at that time.

Contrary to its popular image as an "ancient" ingredient in Chinese medicine, edible bird's nests only entered China as an exotic edible in any significant quantity in the late 16th century. According to literature research, the record of the curative effect of EBN was first seen in Essential of Materia Medica by Ang Wang of the Qing Dynasty, while the most detailed record of its efficacy was in A Supplement to Compendium of Materia Medica by Xuemin Zhao.

Initially, swiftlet nests were exclusively reserved for Chinese emperors and the elite, believed to have incredible rejuvenating properties — earning them the nickname "Caviar of the East." The imperial kitchen of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) was particularly fond of bird's nest soup, considering it a symbol of wealth, power, and prestige.

Traditional Medicinal Applications

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) prescribed EBN as a remedy for consumptive illnesses, tuberculosis, alleviating asthma, dry coughs, haemoptysis, asthenia, improving voice, difficulty in breathing, general weakness of bronchial ailment, and relieving gastric troubles. Besides, EBN was traditionally believed to raise libido, fortify the immune system, promote growth, improve concentration, increase energy and metabolism, and regulate circulation.

Traditional Chinese medicine considers EBN to be neutral in nature and sweet, acting on the lung, stomach, and kidney meridians. According to ancient literature, EBN is able to alleviate respiratory health conditions such as asthma and is believed to have an impact on skin physiology.

3. Chemical Composition and Key Bioactive Constituents

Proximate (Macronutrient) Composition

EBN is mainly composed of 60–65% protein, 8–31% carbohydrate, 2.1% ash, and 0.14–1.28% lipid, and also contains minerals including calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K). The nests of both white-nest and black-nest swiftlets have high levels of calcium, iron, potassium, and magnesium.

Nutritional and authenticity studies show that EBN acquired from different sources — such as swiftlet premises, natural caves, and retail stores — contain significantly varied chemical compositions. A. fuciphagus EBN from swiftlet premises has higher antioxidant activities and sialic acid content, whereas A. maximus EBN from caves has more mineral composition of calcium and magnesium. Total amino acids in A. fuciphagus EBN were found to be 23% higher than in A. maximus EBN.

The major amino acids found in EBN are glutamic acid (9.61%), aspartic acid (6.34%), lysine (5.44%), and leucine (5.30%).

Sialic Acid (N-Acetylneuraminic Acid, Neu5Ac)

EBN is a rich dietary source of sialic acid (SA), accounting for approximately 10% of the total dry weight, typically found in bound forms such as oligosaccharides, glycolipids, or glycoproteins. SA is classified into four distinct types based on the substituent group at carbon 5, including N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac or NANA), N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc), diamino neuraminic acid (KDN), and neuraminic acid (Neu). In the context of EBN, SA specifically refers to Neu5Ac — a critical compound essential for infant brain development, synaptic connectivity, neuronal growth, memory formation, and immune system enhancement.

In general, sialic acid rarely exists free in nature and is usually available as a component of oligosaccharide chains of mucins, glycoproteins, and glycolipids. Sialic acid usually occupies terminal, nonreducing positions that are highly exposed and functionally essential in oligosaccharide chains of complex carbohydrates on membrane surfaces, mainly linked to galactose, N-acetylgalactosamine, and other sialic acid moieties. The highest concentration of sialic acid in mammals is present in the central nervous system, where the majority is found in gangliosides (65%), followed by glycoproteins (32%), with the remaining existing as free sialic acid.

N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) in EBN is known for its antiviral, skin-whitening, and bone maintenance functions.

Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) and Growth Factor-Like Activity

EBN contains the bioactive compound sialic acid, and EBN may also contain epidermal growth factor (EGF), because EGF-like activity was detected in protein fractions partially purified from EBN extract. The presence of EGF was first documented in 1987 (Kong et al., Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B 87:221–226), establishing that swiftlet nests contain this growth-promoting protein.

Glycoproteins, Mucins, and the Protein Proteome

EBN consists of sialylated mucin (SiaMuc) glycoproteins and is recognized for its nutritional, therapeutic, and medicinal properties. Studies have identified bioactive attributes of EBN with a focus on glycan recognition, side chains, and peptides influencing biological activities. O-linked and N-linked oligosaccharide glycosylation in EBN SiaMuc glycoproteins play a role in binding to receptors like lectins.

In addition to sialic acid and EGF, the effect of EBN in maintaining skin elasticity and anti-aging may also benefit from the stabilizing effect of LOXL3 on fibrils and elastin in the skin, and the role of nucleobindin-2 in promoting cell proliferation. The protective effects of EBN on the stomach and lungs may be derived from AMCase and MUC5AC acting on lung epithelium and gastric mucosa. Additional functions including protective effects on the nervous system, cardiovascular system, tendon, bone and joint, eyes, and prevention of diabetes and obesity are closely related to the bioactivities of MUC5AC, nucleobindin-2, SDF4, GRP78, and related proteins.

Other Bioactive Compounds

EBN has been found to contain bioactive compounds such as 9-O-acetylated GD3, glycopeptide, sialic acid, tetraacetyl-thymol-beta-D-glucoside, epidermal growth factor, and glucose-regulated protein, which are involved in renoprotection, skin moisturizing, mitochondrial protection, relieving oxidative stress and inflammation, regulating cholesterol-related genes, improving type 2 diabetes, and enhancing male reproduction. Sialyllactose, an acidic oligosaccharide found in EBN, has an immune-protective effect against pathogens and contributes to development of the immune system and intestinal microbiome.

EBN's antioxidant properties are attributed to a pool of bioactive compounds such as amino acids, sialic acid, triacylglycerol, vitamins, lactoferrin, fatty acids, minerals, and glucosamine. The anti-oxidative effect of EBN also involves two main constituents, namely ovotransferrin and lactoferrin.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Antiviral Mechanisms

Studies have reported that EBN suppresses the replicated virus from exiting host cells, reduces viral replication, inhibits endosomal trafficking of the virus and intracellular viral autophagy, suppresses secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reorients the actin cytoskeleton of infected cells, and increases lysosomal degradation of viral materials. The proteins or peptides with the best anti-influenza effect were found to be sialylglycoproteins of 10–25 kDa in pancreatin-treated EBN extract.

Neuroprotective Mechanisms

Functional effects of EBN are often linked to its large number of antioxidants and anti-inflammatory glycopeptides. Bioactive compounds in EBN, especially sialic acid, add value to its neurotrophic potential and contribute to neuronal repair and protection. The antioxidant effect of EBN through decreasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and increasing the expression of the SOD gene in hippocampal neurons (SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells) represents another identified neuroprotective mechanism.

Skin and Anti-Aging Mechanisms

EBN digest has been shown to significantly suppress intracellular levels of ROS, promote the transcription of Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway, and inhibit the transcription of TNF-α-induced HIF-α signaling, which validates its anti-inflammatory functions in skin. In a randomized controlled trial, EBN decreased the expression of inflammatory factors (IL-6 and TNF-α) and serum factors (NO, MMP-1, MMP-9) in a skin aging model.

Immunomodulatory Mechanisms

In disease models, EBN attenuates oxidative stress-induced cellular apoptosis and enhances proliferation and activation of B-cells and their antibody secretion. One in vitro study investigated the impact of EBN's aqueous extract on human immunity through monocytes, dendritic cells (DCs), T-cells, and B-cells using the modular immune in vitro construct (MIMIC) model, offering detailed insights into how EBN influences the human immune system and suggesting that its medicinal value for human immunity could be substantiated.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Skin Health and Anti-Aging

Clinical (Human) Evidence: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluated skin health functional improvement — including wrinkles, elasticity, moisture, and whitening — following consumption of edible bird's nest extract for 12 weeks in women aged 40–60 years. Participants were randomly allocated 1:1 into the EBN extract or placebo group with 43 participants each, consuming 100 mg of the extract or placebo daily for 12 weeks. The EBN group showed a significant decrease in the skin wrinkle value compared to the placebo group at baseline and week 12; however, there was no statistically significant difference in elasticity between groups. Adverse reactions were absent in both groups, and changes in laboratory test results before and after ingestion were within the normal range, indicating no clinically significant difference.

A separate randomized controlled trial enrolled 92 healthy female volunteers aged 25–45 years, randomly divided into a high-dose group, a low-dose group, and a control group, completing a 12-week treatment. The results showed that consumption of high-dose EBN significantly improved skin moisture and elasticity by 22.14% and 5.89%, respectively, and significantly reduced the number of deep wrinkles, light wrinkles, and spot area by 18.47%, 0.64%, and 3.05%, respectively.

Evidence strength: Preliminary-to-moderate. Two small-to-moderate randomized controlled trials have shown statistically significant improvements in specific wrinkle parameters, but effect sizes are modest, trial sizes are small, and independent replication is limited.

5.2 Antiviral Activity (Influenza)

Pre-clinical Evidence Only: EBN is described in traditional Chinese medicine as having antiviral, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and immunomodulatory effects; a small number of studies have reported antiviral effects against influenza infections using in vitro and in vivo models, highlighting the importance of sialic acid and thymol derivatives in these therapeutic effects. Studies have reported that EBN suppresses the replicated virus from exiting host cells, reduces viral replication, and inhibits endosomal trafficking of the virus, intracellular viral autophagy process, secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and actin cytoskeleton reorientation in infected cells. The potential application of EBN in clinical treatments of influenza A and coronavirus has been discussed and proposed.

Evidence strength: Weak — currently limited to in vitro and animal models. No published human clinical trials on antiviral efficacy have been identified.

5.3 Neuroprotection and Cognitive Function

In vitro and Animal Evidence: EBN contains bioactive compounds that might confer neuroprotective effects to neurons; studies have investigated the neuroprotective effect of EBN extracts in a neurotoxin-induced in vitro Parkinson's disease model, using pancreatin-digested crude extract and water extract. EBN has been reported to enhance cell functions by increasing the density and number of lysosomes, reducing Rab5 protein activity, enhancing mucin production, and modulating RhoA expression, which regulates actin cytoskeleton dynamics; and as a cognitive enhancer, has been reported to improve memory and neuroprotective functions by inhibiting neuroinflammatory processes.

A review has systematically summarized the neuroprotective activity of EBN in modulating cognitive performance and function.

Evidence strength: Weak — predominantly in vitro and animal data. Human clinical trials in cognitive or neurological outcomes are absent from the published literature to date.

5.4 Bone Health

Animal Evidence: EBN extracts have been reported to display enhancement of bone strength and dermal thickness in experimental models. A study referenced in the peer-reviewed literature (Matsukawa et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2011;75:590–592) reported improvement in bone strength and dermal thickness due to dietary EBN extract in ovariectomized rats, suggesting a potential role in postmenopausal bone loss.

Evidence strength: Weak — animal data only; no human clinical trials on bone outcomes have been published.

5.5 Respiratory and Gastrointestinal Health

TCM prescribed EBN as a remedy for alleviating asthma, dry coughs, haemoptysis, general weakness of bronchial ailment, and relieving gastric troubles. The protective effect of EBN on the stomach and lungs may be derived from the protection AMCase and MUC5AC provide to lung epithelium and gastric mucosa — a mechanism identified through proteomics research, not human trials.

Evidence strength: Very weak — traditional use is well-documented; proposed mechanisms are based on protein-function analysis. No controlled human studies on respiratory or gastrointestinal endpoints have been published.

5.6 Antioxidant Activity

EBN has long been reported to contain antioxidants, although the effect of its antioxidants after oral administration is not fully known. EBN's antioxidant properties are attributed to a pool of bioactive compounds such as amino acids, sialic acid, triacylglycerol, vitamins, lactoferrin, fatty acids, minerals, and glucosamine.

Evidence strength: Weak in humans — antioxidant capacity is well-characterized in vitro; oral bioavailability and in vivo significance remain poorly established.

5.7 Immune Modulation

Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that administration of EBN was able to boost immunity, promote cell division and proliferation, neutralize influenza activity, and improve osteoporosis. Recent discoveries of beneficial health functions of EBN include antimicrobial and antiviral actions, immunomodulation, cancer prevention and treatment, tissue regeneration, cardiometabolic maintenance, antioxidant action, and neuroprotection.

Evidence strength: Weak — primarily in vitro and animal data; robust human immunological trials are lacking.

5.8 Cardiometabolic and Metabolic Effects

At least one study has examined the effects of EBN on glycolipid metabolism in obese mice fed a high-fat diet. The efficacy of this type of EBN also needs to be validated in population trials; and aside from sialic acid, the identification of other potential bioactive components in EBN and their specific metabolic effects remain unclear.

Evidence strength: Very weak — animal studies only; human data are absent.

Overall Assessment of Evidence Base

Despite the potential functional roles and popularity of this ethnomedicine in Asian cultures, the pharmacological research on EBN is still very limited, and claims of beneficial effects are questionable due to the lack of strong supporting experimental evidence. The two skin-focused randomized controlled trials represent the strongest human clinical evidence available; all other therapeutic areas rest on in vitro cell studies, animal experiments, or historical tradition.

6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

EBN is consumed in several forms, with dosages varying by preparation and study. In the 2022 double-blind placebo-controlled skin wrinkle study, participants consumed 100 mg of standardized EBN extract or placebo daily for 12 weeks. In the 2025 randomized controlled trial on skin aging in 92 female volunteers aged 25–45 years, subjects were divided into a high-dose group, a low-dose group, and a control group for a 12-week intervention (specific milligram doses were not numerically stated in the available abstract).

In traditional preparations, raw dried nests — typically whole cups or strips — are soaked in water for several hours, then slowly double-steamed or simmered. The quantity of nest used in traditional preparations varies considerably by cultural practice, and no standardized traditional dosage has been defined in pharmacopoeial monographs. No official monograph for EBN appears in the European Pharmacopoeia, WHO monographs series, or USP as of the current literature reviewed. Among active components of processed EBN products studied, polysialic acid has been measured at more than 360 mg per 100 g, while the contents of other active components within such products have not been fully determined.

7. Safety Considerations and Adverse Effects

IgE-Mediated Allergy and Anaphylaxis

EBN can be a potential source of life-threatening food allergy to those who are sensitized to its components or contaminants. It has been demonstrated that IgE-mediated hypersensitivity occurs after consumption of bird nest soup. Investigations revealed that a 66 kDa protein is the main putative allergen responsible for this reaction, and this protein shows homology with ovoinhibitor — a Kazal-type serine protease inhibitor — that is mainly found in chicken egg white.

Despite a progressive decline in the molecular weight of allergens on SDS-PAGE with increasing periods of boiling, IgE binding was not affected, indicating that standard cooking does not reliably destroy the allergenicity of EBN. Serum from allergic patients showed differences in IgE binding to three sources of commercially available EBN, with the highest levels of specific IgE recorded with the Sarawak source; only the Sarawak and Thailand sources showed considerable cross-reactivity.

The rise of allergic issues related to the consumption of EBN has been reported in several health cases. Allergic issues including skin rash, nasal obstruction, and facial swelling have been reported in Japan after 5 minutes of consumption of EBN-containing dessert; the condition of allergic reactions can be of different degrees of severity, and some severe cases have resulted in death. Food-induced anaphylaxis among children due to EBN has been reported, with the occurrence attributed to the presence of putative allergens and abnormal regulation of IgE-mediated processes.

Nitrite and Nitrate Contamination

Recent studies have shown that the redness of some EBN products can be attributed to nitrate and nitrite contamination. Nitrite is a nitrate metabolite commonly used as a food additive or preservative and is considered hazardous if the amount exceeds the daily allowable intake. While nitrate and nitrite themselves are not carcinogenic, nitrite may react with some dietary amine compounds to form carcinogenic nitrosamines, which can cause stomach cancer.

Natural EBNs are inevitably contaminated with fungi, spores, nitrites, and heavy metals, and these substances are often detected in marketed products, including nitrite content 100-fold exceeding the safety standard in the so-called "rarest" blood EBN. Naturally formed cave-EBNs (darker in color) also contain higher nitrite and nitrate levels compared to white house-EBNs, suggesting a relationship between nitrite and nitrate content and EBN color.

Heavy Metal Contamination

Heavy metal and mineral contaminations in EBN have been reported in recent studies. In raw EBN, levels of Hg and Cu were found to be higher than permissible limits, whereas the levels of Pb, As, and Cd were below the limits. Trace amounts of these elements were also found in commercial EBN. The maximum permissible levels are: Hg ≤0.05 ppm, Cu ≤1 ppm, Pb ≤2 ppm, As ≤1 ppm, and Cd ≤1 ppm; additionally, Fe levels were found to be higher than the regulatory limit (0.3 ppm) in both raw and commercial EBN. All these heavy metals, if consumed in excessive amounts, could react with proteins or enzymes in the human body, causing chronic heavy metal poisoning syndrome.

Microbial and Mite Contamination

Potential residual contaminants in EBNs include nitrite and nitrate contents; bacteria, fungi, and mites; heavy metals; and other contaminants affecting EBN color changes and allergenicity. In addition to controlled microorganisms affecting the quality of EBNs, mites have been identified as pathogens and are among the most common sources of allergens that cause respiratory allergies and anaphylaxis.

No Adverse Effects Observed in Clinical Trials

In the 12-week randomized placebo-controlled skin health trial, adverse reactions were absent in both EBN and placebo groups, and changes in laboratory test results were within the normal range, indicating no clinically significant safety concern at the 100 mg/day extract dose tested.

Processing and Quality Control

Treating EBN with enzymes for elimination of contaminants, extraction of bioactive compounds, and allergen deactivation could provide consumers with safer EBN products. With increasing demands for EBN, quality control of EBN products is important for safe consumption, and processing steps are particularly important for efficient extraction of bioactive compounds; geographical location, collection place, and harvesting season all contribute to differences in nutritional content.

References

• Frontiers in Pharmacology — Editorial: Edible Bird's Nest—Chemical Composition and Potential Health Efficacy and Risks (PMC8831711)
• Frontiers in Pharmacology — The Anti-Viral and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Edible Bird's Nest in Influenza and Coronavirus Infections (PMC8138174)
• Frontiers in Pharmacology — Edible Bird's Nest: Recent Updates and Industry Insights Based on Laboratory Findings (PMC8517086)
• Frontiers in Pharmacology — Edible Bird's Nest: The Functional Values of the Prized Animal-Based Bioproduct From Southeast Asia–A Review (PMC8089372)
• BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine — Edible Bird's Nest Ameliorates Oxidative Stress-Induced Apoptosis in SH-SY5Y Human Neuroblastoma Cells (PMC4210536)
• Frontiers in Pharmacology — The Potential Use of Sialic Acid From Edible Bird's Nest to Attenuate Mitochondrial Dysfunction (PMC8072155)
• Chinese Herbal Medicine — Proteins: Neglected Active Ingredients in Edible Bird's Nest (PMC10394320)
• Frontiers in Pharmacology — Anti-Wrinkle Efficacy of Edible Bird's Nest Extract: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Comparative Study (PMC8959461)
• Food Science and Human Wellness — The Antiaging Effect of Edible Bird's Nest on the Skin of Healthy Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial (2025)
• Frontiers in Pharmacology — Potential Residual Contaminants in Edible Bird's Nest (PMC8021867)
• Veterinary World — An Investigation of Heavy Metals in Edible Bird's Nest from Indonesia Using ICP-MS (PMC8980377)
• Tissue-Engineered Edible Bird's Nests (TeeBN) (PMC10339468)
• Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine — Proximate Analysis and Safety Profile of Farmed Edible Bird's Nest in Malaysia (PMC6995494)
• Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology — Immunochemical Characterization of Edible Bird's Nest Allergens (Goh et al., 2001) — PubMed
• Food Chemistry — Thermal Analysis Methods for Rapid Identification and Authentication of Swiftlet Edible Bird's Nest — PubMed
• Frontiers in Neurology — Edible Bird's Nest as a Potential Cognitive Enhancer (PMC9120600)
• Frontiers in Pharmacology — Edible Bird's Nest Possesses Anti-Inflammatory Responses in Restoring Symptoms of Atopic Dermatitis (PMC9531170)
• Molecules — Determination of 3′-Sialyllactose in Edible Bird's Nests (PMC9965600)
• Veterinary World — Effects of House-Cultivated Edible Bird's Nest on Immunoglobulin and Cytokine Release In Vitro (PMC11283608)
• Food & Function (RSC) — Edible Bird's Nest Regulates Glucose and Lipid Metabolic Disorders via the Gut–Liver Axis in Obese Mice (2024)
• Nutrients — Edible Bird's Nest as a Multi-Component Functional Food for Brain Aging (2026)
• Wikipedia — Edible Bird's Nest
• Wikipedia — Edible-Nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus)
• AIP Conference Proceedings — Nutritional Composition and Solubility of Edible Bird Nest (Halimi et al., 2014)
• ResearchGate — Edible Bird's Nest (EBN): Production, Processing, Food and Medicinal Importance (2023)
• Food Research International — A Comprehensive Review of Edible Bird's Nest (2020)
• Industrial Crops and Products — Extraction, Structural Analysis and Biological Activities of Edible Bird's Nest Sialylated Mucin Glycoproteins: A Review (2024)
• Food Science and Human Wellness — Insights on the Molecular Mechanism of Neuroprotection Exerted by Edible Bird's Nest and Its Bioactive Constituents (2022)