Black nightshade

Black Nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description

Solanum nigrum, the European black nightshade or simply black nightshade or blackberry nightshade, is a species of flowering plant in the family Solanaceae, native to Eurasia and introduced in the Americas, Australasia, and South Africa. It is also referred to in various languages and regional traditions as "Yehaijiao," "Heixingxing," "Kukui," "Kucai," "Heidoudou," "Yesanzi," and "Makoh," among other names.

In formal botanical classification, S. nigrum is placed as Plantae, Angiospermae, Magnoliopsida, Solanales, Solanaceae, Solanum. Solanaceae is a family of plants with about 80 genera and 3,000 species, widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions, mainly in tropical America. Solanum occupies an important weight in the Solanaceae family, with about 2,000 species, among which well-known varieties include Solanum melongena L. (eggplant), Solanum tuberosum L. (potato), and S. nigrum.

Solanum nigrum is typically an annual or short-lived perennial herb, growing up to 30 to 120 centimetres tall, often with a sprawling, bushy habit. Its leaves are dark green, oval to heart-shaped, and usually have wavy or toothed edges. The plant produces small, star-shaped white or pale purple flowers in clusters. The spherical berries of S. nigrum are dark purple when ripe. Both the berries and the leaves are edible, but the leaves contain high amounts of alkaloids that must be cooked to detoxify.

Some other species may also be referred to as "black nightshade," which creates taxonomic ambiguity in the literature. Some of the uses ascribed to S. nigrum in literature may actually apply to other black nightshade species within the same species complex, and proper species identification is essential for food and medicinal uses. Importantly, the common name "nightshade" is also used broadly for an entire plant family and is often confused with deadly nightshade, Atropa belladonna, which is a very different and much more dangerous plant.

Common Names and Synonyms

• European black nightshade, blackberry nightshade, or simply black nightshade are all names for this plant. Solanum nigrum has a place in the Solanaceae family with a common name of garden nightshade.
• In Ayurvedic tradition: Kakamachi. Regional Indian names include Makoi (Hindi), Kaamani or Makoi (Marathi), Pludi (Gujarati), and Kaakamache (Kannada).
• In Chinese tradition: Longkui (龙葵), as documented in the classical texts.

Distribution and Habitat

These plants are frequently cultivated in fields, wastelands, and other locations. The plant is characterised by simplicity of cultivation, native provenance from China, wide distribution across Asia and Europe, and recent transplantation to the Americas and Australia. It is an edible plant in India, Australia, Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Uganda.

2. Historical and Traditional Use

Pre-Agricultural and Ancient Record

Solanum nigrum has been recorded from deposits of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic era of ancient Britain, and it is suggested by the botanist and ecologist Edward Salisbury that it was part of the native flora there before Neolithic agriculture emerged. The plant was known and mentioned by ancient herbalists, including Dioscorides. Members of the nigrum group are mentioned and often illustrated in all of the ancient herbals, with Dioscorides being one of the first to record their medicinal properties. Since then, S. nigrum has continued to be widely acclaimed for its medicinal effects in every country where the taxon is found.

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

The first known record describing the medicinal use of S. nigrum was found in Yao Xing Lun (药性论, Tang Dynasty). S. nigrum can be used as a medicine and tastes bitter, is of cold property and slightly toxic, and belongs to the lung and kidney meridians. In Chinese folk medicine and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), people have accumulated rich clinical experience in the use of S. nigrum. The whole plant of S. nigrum has good effects of dispersing blood stasis and detumescence, clearing away heat, as well as detoxification, and has been commonly used for the treatment of canker sores, skin eczema, urinary tract infections, bacterial dysentery, prostate complaints, and chronic bronchitis, among other conditions, for thousands of years.

For the treatment of carbuncles, swelling, and poisoning, S. nigrum can be externally applied for washing and smashing. It can also be combined with TCM herbs such as Corydalis bungeana Turcz., Chrysanthemum indicum L., and Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz. for decoction and subsequent oral administration to treat sore throats. In addition, S. nigrum has a diuretic effect and can be used together with Alisma plantago-aquatica Linn. and related drugs to treat edema and adverse urination.

Ayurveda (Indian Traditional Medicine)

Kakamachi (Solanum nigrum) is an Ayurvedic plant used for treating fever, opium poisoning, splenomegaly, diseases of the liver, rodent bites, vitiligo, nausea, diseases of the oral cavity, and headache. In the Ayurvedic tradition of India, S. nigrum has been used to treat intestinal diseases, ulcers, diarrhea, and skin conditions. In Ayurvedic classification, the plant's properties are described as bitter in taste, light and unctuous in qualities, and it is regarded as tridoshagna — capable of reducing all three doshas.

African, East African, and Other Regional Traditions

Traditional medicine in India and other parts of the globe has used Solanum nigrum to treat liver disorders, chronic skin disease, inflammatory conditions, menstrual cramps, fevers, diarrhoea, eye infections, dizziness, and other diseases. S. nigrum has traditionally been used for the prevention of symptoms such as discomfort, inflammation, infections, and problems with the gastrointestinal tract.

Traditional Preparations and Forms

There are ethnobotanical accounts of S. nigrum young leaves and shoots being boiled as a vegetable with the cooking water being discarded and replaced several times to remove toxins. Despite its toxic reputation, the fully ripe, black berries of Solanum nigrum have been consumed in various cultures for generations, particularly in Africa, India, and parts of Europe. The ripening process significantly reduces the concentration of toxic solanine, making the mature fruit safer for consumption when properly prepared. In some regions, the ripe berries are used to make jams, pies, or are cooked into savory dishes. Externally, the plant has been applied as a poultice or paste to inflamed skin lesions, swellings, and burns. Traditionally, it has been used to treat various cancers, acute nephritis, urethritis, leucorrhea, sore throat, toothache, dermatitis, eczema, carbuncles, and furuncles.

3. Key Chemical Constituents and Active Compounds

As of 2022, S. nigrum has been found to contain a total of 188 chemicals, encompassing steroidal alkaloids, steroidal saponins, glycoproteins, organic acids, lignins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. Among them, steroidal saponins, alkaloids, phenols, and polysaccharides are the major bioactive constituents.

Steroidal Glycoalkaloids

Among the major bioactive classes, steroidal alkaloids and steroidal saponins are the primary active components responsible for the plant's antitumor properties. The steroidal alkaloids in S. nigrum primarily consist of three glycosides: solanines, solasonine, and solamargine.

In early 1971, Aslanor S.M. found that the main active components in S. nigrum are solasonine, solamargine, and solasodine. In 1982, Japanese scholars isolated solasonine and solamargine from S. nigrum, and later, Gu et al. isolated four new alkaloids (solanine A, 7α-OH khasianine, 7α-OH solamargine, and 7α-OH solasonine). Among them, solanine A showed significant cytotoxicity against the gastric cancer cell line (MGC803 cells), HepG2 cells, and colon cancer cell line (SW480 cells).

Among the steroidal alkaloids contained in S. nigrum, solasonine and solamargine make up to 0.2% and 0.25% of the plant's dry weight, respectively, and the glycoside of solasonine and solamargine formed after alkaline hydrolysis is solasodine.

α-Solanine, also referred to as solanine, possesses a range of beneficial properties, including antidiabetic, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, antiprotozoan, and antifungal activities. Solanum glycoalkaloids in general can inhibit cholinesterase and disrupt cell membranes, and some have been reported to be teratogenic.

Steroidal Saponins

Steroidal saponins are among the main pharmacologically active components of Solanum nigrum. Solanigrosides (A–O, R, X, Y), nigrumnins, and degalactotigonin are important saponins. These saponins have strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor properties.

Polysaccharides

Crude polysaccharides isolated from S. nigrum stems have shown immunomodulatory and anti-tumor effects. The carbohydrate content of these polysaccharides ranges from about 46% to 65%, fitting the typical profile for Solanaceae family polysaccharides.

Polyphenolic Compounds

The plant also contains a variety of polyphenolic compounds such as gallic acid, catechin, protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, epicatechin, and rutin. These phenolic compounds are believed to contribute to the antioxidant activity of the plant.

Additional Constituents

Phytochemical research confirms the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, and saponins in S. nigrum. Additional phytochemical analysis has shown the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, terpenoids, proteins, carbohydrates, acetic compounds, and resin.

4. Established and Proposed Mechanisms of Action

Apoptosis Induction and Anticancer Mechanisms

The steroidal compounds within S. nigrum, particularly steroidal alkaloids, exhibit robust antitumor properties either independently or when combined with other drugs. Solanine has a positive effect on the inhibition of pancreatic cancer cell growth in vitro and in vivo. In pancreatic cancer cells and a nu/nu nude mice model, solanine was found to inhibit cancer cell growth through caspase-3 dependent mitochondrial apoptosis.

Solasonine inhibits an MDM2–p53 interaction, inducing apoptosis in HCC cell lines expressing p53 (HepG2) or in those not expressing p53 (Hep3b). Thus, the apoptotic activity of solasonine can be mediated through both p53-dependent and p53-independent pathways.

Solasonine has shown antitumor properties by inhibiting the growth of acute monocytic leukemia cell lines (THP-1 and MV4-11) in laboratory settings. With increasing concentrations of solasonine, the inhibition of cell growth was evident in both THP-1 and MV4-11 cell lines at 24 and 48 hours. Cells exposed to solasonine showed decreased numbers and, with increased concentrations, a percentage of cells displayed apoptosis-specific alterations like fragmentation and nuclear shrinkage in both cell lines, suggesting that solasonine stimulates apoptosis and triggers cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase.

A number of plant extracts containing the spirosolane glycoalkaloids solamargine and solasonine and their aglycone solasodine have been examined for their anticancer activity. Solamargine is the main component of the total alkaloids of S. nigrum, and pharmacological studies have shown that solamargine has strong inhibitory activity against liver cancer, cervical cancer, lung cancer, laryngeal cancer, cholangiocarcinoma, and esophageal cancer.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

Polysaccharides extracted from S. nigrum have been shown to alleviate liver swelling, increase the levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), and catalase (CAT), and decrease the content of malondialdehyde (MDA). These effects indicate modulation of the endogenous antioxidant defence system.

Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

Various solvent extracts and isolated bioactive compounds of S. nigrum have exhibited anti-inflammatory properties among other pharmacological activities, including immunomodulatory, antihypertensive, antimicrobial, and antiviral activities.

Hepatoprotective Mechanisms

The protective effects of water extract of S. nigrum (SNE) against liver damage were evaluated in carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced chronic hepatotoxicity in rats. S. nigrum L. has been used as a hepatoprotective and anti-inflammation agent in Chinese medicine. The results showed that treatment with SNE significantly lowered the CCl₄-induced serum levels of hepatic enzyme markers (GOT, GPT, ALP, and total bilirubin), superoxide, and hydroxyl radical.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Anticancer / Antitumor Activity

Evidence strength: Predominantly preclinical (in vitro and animal). Very limited direct human clinical trial data as a standalone treatment.

S. nigrum has a long history of use in cancer treatment, with its extracts displaying significant antitumor pharmacological activities. Consequently, further research into the isolation and purification of the antitumor active components of S. nigrum holds great significance. Research has been conducted over the past two decades on the active components of S. nigrum with antitumor properties.

Plants have natural products which possess antiproliferative potential against many cancers. In one study, six isolated fractions (ethyl acetate, petroleum ether, chloroform, n-butanol, ethanol, and aqueous) from Solanum nigrum were evaluated for their cytotoxic effect on different cell lines, including hepatic carcinoma cell line (HepG2), cervical cancer cell line (HeLa), and baby hamster kidney (BHK) normal cells. The results demonstrated that S. nigrum fractions exhibited anticancer activity against hepatic and cervical cancer cell lines with non-toxic effect in normal cells.

Regarding the use of S. nigrum aqueous extract in combination with standard chemotherapy agents, the aqueous extract of Solanum nigrum (AE-SN) is a crucial ingredient in some traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formulas for treating cancer patients and exhibits antitumor effects in human HCC cells. One study examined the tumor-suppression efficiency of AE-SN integrated with cisplatin or doxorubicin in human HCC cells (Hep3B and HepJ5). The results suggested that the integrated treatment with AE-SN-potentiated cisplatin and doxorubicin induced cytotoxicity through the cleavage of caspase-7 and accumulation of LC-3 A/B II, associated with apoptotic and autophagic cell death.

In an animal model study, one study aimed to examine the immunohistochemical and histopathological changes and chemoprotective effect of aqueous and alcoholic extracts of Solanum nigrum on N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA)-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in an 82-rat Wistar model. HCC was induced using NDEA as an inducing agent followed by phenobarbitone as a promoter for 16 weeks. The study revealed that the immunoreactivity of the hepatocytes treated with the higher dose of alcoholic extract (400 mg/kg) was similar to the group of rats treated with standard drug sorafenib, indicating anticancerous property of S. nigrum.

In a study involving solamargine, a steroidal alkaloid from Solanum nigrum L., it exhibited potent cytotoxic effects against human K562 leukemia cells.

Limitation note: Plant-based herbal medicines and their derived compounds offer promising potential for cancer research and treatment, and S. nigrum finds extensive use in clinical settings as a traditional Chinese medicine. However, a substantial proportion of the evidence base for anticancer activity remains in vitro (cell lines) or in rodent models. Controlled human clinical trials evaluating S. nigrum as a primary or adjuvant cancer treatment are sparse in the peer-reviewed literature, and no regulatory approval for such use has been established.

5.2 Hepatoprotective Activity

Evidence strength: Animal studies predominantly; mechanistic rationale supported; no robust human RCTs identified.

In one study, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were orally fed with water extract of S. nigrum (SNE) at doses of 0.2, 0.5, and 1.0 g kg⁻¹ body weight, along with administration of CCl₄ (20% CCl₄/corn oil; 0.5 mL kg⁻¹ bw) for 6 weeks. The results showed that treatment with SNE significantly lowered the CCl₄-induced serum levels of hepatic enzyme markers (GOT, GPT, ALP, and total bilirubin), superoxide, and hydroxyl radical.

Recent studies have revealed that Solanum nigrum extracts (SNE) possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidation, antihyperlipidemia, and liver protection abilities. One study investigated the in vivo and in vitro effects of an SNE on nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL)-induced hepatitis.

Chester et al. reported that the hydroalcoholic extract (250 mg/kg) of S. nigrum showed a significant decrease in hepatic GSH, SOD, and CAT, and considered this as an index of the antioxidant status of tissues in d-galactosamine-induced hepatic fibrosis rats. Histopathological study also showed that the crude extract had a protective effect on the liver due to the antioxidant properties of the plant.

The possible protective effect of S. nigrum fruit extract (SNFEt) was investigated for its antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic activity against ethanol-induced toxicity in rats. The experimental animals were intoxicated with 20% ethanol (7.9 g/kg/day) for 30 days via gastric intubation. SNFEt was administered at the dose of 250 mg/kg body weight along with the daily dose of ethanol for 30 days. The findings indicated a significant antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic activity of S. nigrum fruits, which offered protection against ethanol-induced toxicity.

5.3 Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Evidence strength: In vitro and animal models; human clinical data absent.

Investigations of pharmacological activities of S. nigrum revealed that this edible medicinal herb exhibits a wide range of therapeutic potential, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, and neuroprotective activities both in vivo and in vitro. Anti-inflammatory mechanisms being studied include modulation of NF-κB signalling pathways and inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These effects have been characterised in cell-based and rodent studies but have not been confirmed in double-blind human trials.

5.4 Antidiabetic Activity

Evidence strength: Preliminary animal data only; no human clinical evidence identified.

Evaluation of the antidiabetic effect of aqueous extract of Solanum nigrum Linn berries (AESNB) was performed in alloxan-induced diabetic Wistar rats. There were five groups (normal control, diabetic control, AESNB 200 mg/kg/day, AESNB 400 mg/kg/day, and standard drug glimepride 0.1 mg/kg/day) with six animals in each group. Alloxan was used to induce diabetes in the rats. The fasting blood glucose level was measured by glucometer on days 0, 1, 7, 14, and 21 after 12 hours' fasting. On the 21st day, after blood glucose measurement, all animals were sacrificed and their pancreas were analysed histopathologically. Solanine also possesses antidiabetic properties, among its range of beneficial activities. No controlled human clinical trials investigating S. nigrum for blood glucose management have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature.

5.5 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence strength: Well-characterised in vitro; animal data corroborative; human evidence absent.

Polysaccharides extracted from S. nigrum alleviated liver swelling, increased the levels of SOD, GSH, and CAT, and decreased the content of MDA. These enzymatic biomarkers are well-established indicators of antioxidant capacity in animal models. The polyphenolic fraction—including gallic acid, rutin, catechin, and epicatechin—is believed to contribute directly to free-radical scavenging activity.

5.6 Neuroprotective Activity

Evidence strength: Preliminary animal data; no human clinical evidence identified.

Regarding the central nervous system, Ogunsuyi et al. investigated the neuroprotective effect of S. nigrum. Compounds from S. nigrum have been confirmed to have various effects including neuroprotective activity. These investigations remain at the preclinical stage.

5.7 Antimicrobial Activity

Evidence strength: In vitro only.

S. nigrum is known to possess various biological activities including antibacterial and antifungal activity. Solvent extracts and isolated bioactive compounds of S. nigrum have exhibited antimicrobial activities. These findings derive from microbiological in vitro assays and have not been evaluated in human clinical settings.

5.8 Antihypertensive Activity

Evidence strength: Preliminary only; mechanistic basis under investigation.

Various solvent extracts and isolated bioactive compounds of S. nigrum have exhibited antihypertensive activities among other pharmacological properties. The precise mechanisms and clinical relevance in human subjects have not been established through controlled trials.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

Based on the available scientific and traditional literature, the following body systems are associated with S. nigrum research and use:

• Hepatic/Gastrointestinal System: The whole plant of S. nigrum has been used for the treatment of urinary tract infections, bacterial dysentery, and skin eczema as well as hepatoprotection. Liver-protective effects are among the best-characterised pharmacological activities of the plant in preclinical research.
• Oncological / Cellular Proliferation: Investigations of pharmacological activities of S. nigrum revealed a wide range of therapeutic potential, including antitumor activity both in vivo and in vitro.
• Immune System: S. nigrum extracts and isolated chemicals indicate immune-stimulating effects. The extracts limit cancer cell growth, minimise chemically induced organ damage, alter immunological function, and provide protection against oxidative stress, according to animal and cell culture studies.
• Central Nervous System: Neuroprotective activity has been investigated in animal models, with attention to oxidative-stress-mediated neuronal injury.
• Cardiovascular / Metabolic System: Antihypertensive and antihyperlipidemic effects have been observed in preclinical settings, as well as antidiabetic effects in rodent models.
• Skin: In traditional systems of medicine, it has been used for inflammatory skin problems, swelling, painful conditions, urinary complaints, and as an adjunct herb in serious illness.
• Urinary Tract: S. nigrum has a diuretic effect and has been used together with other herbs to treat edema and adverse urination.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The following dosage information is drawn directly from cited sources and should be understood as reported in preclinical or traditional contexts, not as clinical recommendations.

• Traditional Chinese Medicine (tincture or powder): In traditional Chinese medicine, Solanum nigrum is used as a tincture or powder. The reported dosage is one to three grams per day.
• Animal study — hepatoprotective (CCl₄ model): Rats were orally fed with water extract of S. nigrum (SNE) at 0.2, 0.5, and 1.0 g kg⁻¹ body weight along with administration of CCl₄ for 6 weeks.
• Animal study — hepatoprotective (hydroalcoholic extract): Hydroalcoholic extract at 250 mg/kg was used in d-galactosamine-induced hepatic fibrosis rat studies.
• Animal study — antidiabetic: The aqueous extract of Solanum nigrum berries was given orally in doses of 200 mg/kg/day and 400 mg/kg/day to rats, compared against glimepride 0.1 mg/kg/day.
• Animal study — antioxidant (fruit extract, ethanol model): S. nigrum fruit extract (SNFEt) was administered at the dose of 250 mg/kg body weight along with the daily dose of ethanol for 30 days.
• Animal study — anticancer (alcoholic extract in HCC model): The higher dose of alcoholic extract (400 mg/kg) was compared with the standard drug sorafenib in an HCC rat model.
• In vitro — solanine on gastric cancer cells: Treatment of the human gastric cancer cell line (SGC-7901) with different concentrations of α-solanine (25, 50, 100 μg/mL) for 24 or 48 hours inhibited proliferation and promoted apoptosis of cells.

8. Safety, Toxicity, and Drug Interactions

Solanine Toxicity

The toxins in S. nigrum are most concentrated in the unripe green berries, and immature fruit should be treated as toxic. Most cases of suspected poisoning are due to consumption of leaves or unripe fruit. Symptoms of solanine toxicity include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, stomach cramps, burning of the throat, cardiac dysrhythmia, headache, and dizziness, as well as hallucinations, loss of sensation, paralysis, fever, jaundice, dilated pupils, hypothermia, and death in more severe cases. It has been suggested that doses of 2–5 mg/kg of body weight can cause toxic symptoms, and doses of 3–6 mg/kg of body weight can be fatal.

Solanum glycoalkaloids can inhibit cholinesterase, disrupt cell membranes, and can be teratogenic.

Documented Poisoning Cases

Accidental contamination by unripe green Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) of commercially available frozen sliced green beans sold in the UK and imported from Belgium resulted in several cases of solanine poisoning. Nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea occurred seven to ten hours post-exposure, but only two children required 24-hour observation in hospital.

Genetic Toxicity

The incidence of micronucleus formation and sperm deformity increased gradually with dose in experimental studies, suggesting potential mutagenic effects and certain genetic toxicity. However, the content of solanine in the leaves, stems, and fruits of S. nigrum will gradually decrease as the plant grows.

Hepatic and Renal Considerations

Preliminary toxicological studies of S. nigrum showed less toxicity but a certain impact on liver and kidney function. A large amount of clinical and animal data will be needed in the future to verify the safety of S. nigrum.

Effect of Processing on Toxin Content

Solanine is practically insoluble in water and can be destroyed by boiling but not by baking. Traditional preparation methods involving multiple water changes during boiling are consistent with reducing alkaloid burden before consumption.

High-Dose Considerations

α-Solanine is a chemical component that widely exists in potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, and other Solanaceae plants. Pharmacological studies have shown that it has antitumor and insecticidal activities, but it also shows toxic effects on humans in overdose.

Anticholinesterase Mechanism of Toxicity

Solanum glycoalkaloids can inhibit cholinesterase and disrupt cell membranes. This mechanism is relevant to understanding the overlap between the toxic and bioactive properties of the plant's alkaloid fraction, since inhibition of cholinesterase at high doses may contribute to the neurological symptoms seen in poisoning.

Evidence Gaps

Preliminary toxicological studies of S. nigrum showed less toxicity and a certain impact on liver and kidney function. In the future, a large amount of clinical and animal data will be needed to verify the safety of S. nigrum for better use as medicine in the field of clinical and health care and in food homologous products.

9. Current Research Status and Evidence Gaps

Numerous studies have shown that S. nigrum possesses a wide range of pharmacological activities, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities, and the research prospects are promising. Reviews have summarised its traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, quality control, toxicity assessment, and clinical applications.

With the development of modern medicine, there are increasing investigations to illustrate the mechanisms of the bioactive constituents isolated from S. nigrum, promoting research and clinical applications. Nevertheless, the overwhelming majority of evidence for all claimed pharmacological activities remains at the level of in vitro studies or rodent animal models. Extracts and isolated chemicals indicate antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, immune-stimulating, and cardioprotective effects, but S. nigrum extracts limit cancer cell growth, minimise chemically induced organ damage, alter immunological function, and provide protection against oxidative stress primarily according to animal and cell culture studies. Well-designed, placebo-controlled human clinical trials are largely absent, and no regulatory body has approved S. nigrum extracts for any therapeutic indication.

References

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