Bombax

Bombax (Bombax ceiba L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Accepted Scientific Name and Synonyms

Bombax ceiba L. carries several accepted synonyms: Bombax malabaricum DC., Bombax malabarica, Salmalia malabaricum (DC.) Schott & Endl., and Gossampinus malabarica (DC.) Merr. The synonym Salmalia malabarica arose when the species was placed in the short-lived genus Salmalia based on minor floral differences, and Gossampinus rubra Buch.-Ham. ex DC. reflects early taxonomic confusion with cotton-like genera.

Taxonomy

Bombax ceiba belongs to the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Malvales, family Malvaceae (subfamily Bombacoideae, previously classified in the distinct family Bombacaceae), genus Bombax, which includes about eight accepted species. The plants formerly classified in the separate family Bombacaceae are now integrated into Malvaceae based on molecular phylogenetic evidence. Phylogenetic analysis based on chloroplast genome data confirms that B. ceiba is closely clustered within one clade of Malvaceae.

Etymology

The genus name Bombax derives from the Greek word bombyx, meaning silk, in reference to the silky, cotton-like fibers that surround the seeds. The specific epithet ceiba originates from the Taíno (Arawak) language of the Caribbean indigenous peoples, where it denotes the kapok tree and related species valued for their fibrous pods.

Common Names

Common English names include red silk-cotton tree, semal, kapok tree, cotton tree, and Malabar silk-cotton tree. In Indian languages it is known regionally as "semal" or "simal" in Hindi and "shimul" or "simul" in Bengali. Other regional names include: Assamese: Semul; Ayurvedic: Shaalmali, Mochaa, Mochaahva, Raktapushpa; Bengali: Shimul, Simul; Cambodian: Roca; Chinese: Mu Mien; French: Bombax de Malabar; Gujarati: Shemalo; Kannada: Kempuburunga. In the Unani system it is known as Mocharas, Samagh-ul-Mocharas, and Semul, and in Arabic as Samagh-ul-Mocharas.

Botanical Description and Natural Habitat

The tree grows to 25 m tall; the trunk is buttressed and usually very spiny on young trees, with gray-white bark and spreading branches. Leaflets are 5–7, with blades oblong to oblong-lanceolate, 10–16 × 3.5–5.5 cm, glabrous, with 15–17 lateral veins on each side of the midrib. Petals are usually red, sometimes orange-red, obovate-oblong, 8–10 × 3–4 cm, fleshy, with stellate puberulence on both surfaces. It is a beautiful deciduous tree with red and large flowers, widely distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa, and Australia. It is distributed throughout India, Ceylon, and Malaya, up to 1,500 m of altitude.

The Indian kapok tree, Bombax ceiba, is worshipped by the Hindu community in North India as a nakshatra tree and home of the female spirits Yakshi. In India it can be found at altitudes up to 1,500 m; in peninsular India it is very common in dry as well as moist deciduous forests and near rivers.

Plant Parts Used and Common Preparations

The indigenous communities and forest dwellers extensively utilize various components of this plant, including the root, flower, gum, leaf, prickles, stem bark, fruit, seed, and heartwood, to address diverse diseases. The dried gum exudate from the bark is commercially designated as Mocharas or Mocharasa. Mocharas is the dried gum of the deciduous tree Bombax ceiba/Salmalia malabarica and is widely distributed throughout India and the Andaman Islands, ascending to hills up to 1,500 m or even more. The gum exudate is used in many Ayurvedic formulations. Seeds are covered with fine cottony hairs, which are used for stuffing pillows. Preparations employed in research include hydroalcoholic extracts, aqueous extracts, ethanolic extracts, and root powders from various plant parts.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda

Medicinal usage of Bombax ceiba has been reported in the traditional systems of medicine including Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani. In Ayurveda, demulcent and tonic uses are associated with the roots, gum, and bark. In the Ayurvedic framework, the plant's taste (rasa) is classified as kashaya (astringent), its qualities (guna) as Laghu (light to digest) and Snigdha (unctuous), its post-digestive transformation (vipaka) as Madhura (sweet), its potency (veerya) as Sheeta (cold), with action on dosha as Vatapitta shamaka (pacifying Vata and Pitta). Pharmacological actions described include astringent, styptic, diuretic, and aphrodisiac effects. Mocharasa is an extensively used vegetable gum employed in Ayurvedic formulations such as Piccha basti.

Unani Medicine

Mochrus (Bombax ceiba Linn.) is one of the medicinal plants used in Unani medicine since time immemorial. The gum is attributed with various medicinal properties: Astringent (Qābiḍ), Demulcent (Mulaṭṭif), Styptic (Ḥābis), Aphrodisiac (Muqawwī-i-Bāh), Retentive (Mumsik), Dessicant (Mujaffif), Spermatogenic (Muwallid-e-Manī), Uterine tonic (Muqawwi-e-Raḥim), Repellent (Rāde'), and Glutinous (Mugharrī). In the Unani system of medicine, Mocharas is used in the treatment of various infectious diseases.

Siddha and Other Traditions

The plant is well mentioned in a variety of traditional medicinal systems, including Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Tibetan Medicine. Bombax ceiba (semal) species have been used as Ayurvedic medicines in several Asian, African, and American countries from long times.

Ethnomedicinal Uses Across Cultures

Many parts of the plant (root, stem bark, gum, leaf, prickles, flower, fruit, seed, and heartwood) are used by various tribal communities and forest dwellers for the treatment of a variety of ailments. The plant is recorded as possessing astringent, cooling, stimulant, diuretic, aphrodisiac, demulcent, and tonic effects, and it is also used in dysentery.

Other ethnomedicinal uses include the treatment of haematuria, cancer, snake bites, sores, boils, anaemia, premature ejaculation, menstrual disorders, hydrocoele, permanent sterilization, gonorrhoea, and colitis, and use as a laxative, diuretic, and astringent. Ethnobotanical research reveals that B. ceiba is effectively employed in the treatment of ailments such as diarrhea, boils, wounds, leprosy, acne, and various other skin conditions, and it has been used as an anthelmintic since ancient times.

The flowers of Bombax ceiba are traditionally used as a home remedy in the treatment of jaundice and spleen enlargement. Parts including bark, leaves, and flowers have been used in traditional systems for the treatment of algesia, hepatotoxicity, hypertension, HIV infections, fever, dysentery, inflammation, catarrhal affection, ulcer, acne, gynecological disorders, piles, and urinary infections.

The taproot is sold by street vendors under the name 'semar-kanda,' 'semar-musalī,' or 'Ram-kanda' as a traditional remedy. Thorns are traditionally pounded with milk, and the paste is applied over pimples. Prickles are used to enhance skin color.

3. Key Chemical Constituents and Active Compounds

Overview of Phytochemical Profile

Previous phytochemical screenings have demonstrated that this plant mainly contains alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other constituents from different parts of the plant. Many essential phytoconstituents have been found in the stem, root, flower, fruit, and leaves of B. ceiba, including alkaloids, glycosides, phytosterols and triterpenoids (lupeol and β-sitosterol), proteins, phenolic compounds (naphthalene derivatives, mangiferin, shamimin, kaempferol, and quercetin), and tannin.

Flowers

The chemical constituents of B. ceiba flower extract have been isolated and identified as: (A) nine flavonoids — apigenin, vitexin, isovitexin, vicinine-2, quercetin, quercetin 3-O-β-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-β-arabinoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-β-glucuronide, and rutin; and (B) three xanthones — 4-O-p-hydroxybenzoyl mangiferin, mangiferin, and isomangiferin. Additional compounds identified in the flowers include scopolamine, protocatechuic acid, esculetin, isomangiferin, mangiferin, isovitexin, vitexin, rutin, chlorogenic acid, methyl chlorogenate, vanillic acid, quercetin, fraxetin, palmitic acid, ethyl palmitate, β-sitosterol, polysaccharides, bombalin, bombasin, bombasin 4-O-β-glucoside, anthocyanin A, anthocyanin B, vicinine-2, and apigenin.

An extensive phytochemical isolation study on the flowers reported twenty-three phenolic compounds, including quercetin, naringenin, mangiferin, bombalin, amurenlactone A, syringin, and ferulic acid. Seven flavones have been reported from the flower extract: vicenin-2, linarin, saponarin, cosmetin, isovitexin, xanthomicrol, and apigenin. The flowers of B. ceiba are an excellent source of fiber and carbohydrates and contain vitamins (vitamin C) and minerals (iron, sodium, phosphorus, and calcium).

Stem Bark and Root

Reports have shown the presence of glycosides and tannins in roots, stem, and leaf. In the stem some alkaloids, and in roots, proteins are identified. The stem bark and root contain mangiferin, lupeol, and β-sitosterol. Gum exudates contain gallic and tannic acids. Flowers contain hentriacontane and gossypol.

Leaves

Six secondary metabolites have been isolated chromatographically from the leaves and characterized as β-sitosterol, β-amyrin, β-amyrin acetate, β-amyrin palmitate, β-amyrone, and isoscopoletin. Leaves of Bombax ceiba contain a flavonol C-glycoside, shamimin. From the dried leaves of B. malabaricum, mangiferin (a xanthone) was also separated.

Seeds

The seeds comprise terpenes, lipids, hexacosanol, and tocopherol, whereas stearin is present in seed fat.

Notable Marker Compounds

• Mangiferin: Mangiferin demonstrates hypoglycemic effects and antioxidant activities. Isolated mangiferin also heals the liver from damage induced by CCl4.
• Shamimin: A tall deciduous multipurpose tree, B. ceiba contains numerous phytochemical constituents including quercetin, carotenoids, β-sitosterol, α-tocopherol, and shamimin — a novel compound that can help treat chronic disorders.
• Lupeol: Bark, root bark, and seed contain lupeol, a triterpene with recognized anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties.
• β-Sitosterol: A phytosterol present in multiple plant parts.
• Polyphenols (general): Research has shown that B. ceiba flowers are rich in phenolic compounds that possess antioxidant properties and protect against oxidative stress and related diseases. The plant also contains flavonoids with anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, lipid peroxidation-inhibiting, anticancer/antitumor, anti-ulcer, and antidiabetic properties. The presence of bioactive compounds including quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, catechin, β-sitosterol, and mangiferin are responsible for these properties.

4. Pharmacology and Scientific Evidence

Overall Evidence Profile

The available scientific evidence for Bombax ceiba consists overwhelmingly of in vitro (cell-based) studies and in vivo animal model experiments. No large-scale, controlled human clinical trials have been published as of the sources available. Evidence is therefore considered preliminary to moderate in strength for most pharmacological activities. Where human-relevant data exist, they are largely extrapolated from animal studies.

4.1 Antidiabetic / Hypoglycemic Activity

Many parts of B. ceiba L., such as flowers, stem bark, and leaves, have been shown to be hypoglycaemic in animal models, and root powder was shown to be anti-diabetic for type 2 patients in 2008. Naturally occurring secondary metabolites like polyphenols, flavonoids, and saponins in plants show significant potential against diabetes.

Animal study (STZ-induced diabetic rats): Based on the ethnomedicinal use of B. ceiba leaf in the treatment of diabetes, a study evaluated the antidiabetic potential of the leaf extract and its major constituent mangiferin. The efficacy of the hydroalcoholic extract of B. ceiba leaf (BCL, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight) and mangiferin (MF, 20 mg/kg body weight) was studied in STZ-induced diabetic rats, with associated complications including retinopathy, cardiopathy, and nephropathy also assessed. After 20 days, serum glucose, lipid profiles, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c%), liver enzyme activity, glycogen content, and histopathology of the pancreas were evaluated. Results demonstrated significant reductions in glucose (p<0.001), HbA1c (p<0.001), cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoproteins, with concurrent elevation of HDL.

Animal study (leaf extract, mice): DPPH free radical scavenging, tail-tipping, writhing, and castor oil-induced diarrheal mice methods were used to assess the antioxidant, hypoglycemic, analgesic, and anti-diarrheal activities of the leaf extract. The study observed significant reductions (p<0.05) in blood glucose at 30, 60, 120, and 180 min following administration of the crude extracts (200 and 400 mg/kg body weight).

Animal study (young roots, alloxan-induced mice): Treatment with ethanolic extract of B. ceiba young roots significantly (p>0.0001) elevated HDL levels; in contrast, it reduced LDL, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels compared to untreated alloxan-induced diabetic mice. Treatment also significantly (p>0.0001) decreased hepatotoxicity, as measured by reduced SGOT and SGPT levels. The findings showed that the young roots of B. ceiba have potential hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and hepatoprotective activities.

Network pharmacology / metabolomics study (flowers, in vitro/computational): MS analysis of B. ceiba flower ethyl acetate fraction revealed the presence of gallic acid, quercetin, protocatechuic acid, quinic acid, and artemisinin — compounds proven to possess various biological activities. The study applied network pharmacology to hypothesize possible mechanisms against type 2 diabetes but did not constitute a clinical study.

Evidence strength: Predominantly animal studies and in vitro data. One historical report of root powder in type 2 patients exists but is not described in available peer-reviewed detail. Evidence is preliminary; human RCTs are absent.

4.2 Hepatoprotective Activity

Animal study (CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity, rats): The flowers of B. ceiba are traditionally used as a home remedy for jaundice and spleen enlargement. The aqueous extract of flowers of B. ceiba (BCAE) was investigated for its effect on experimentally induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Hepatotoxicity was induced by CCl4 treatment, and BCAE (250 or 500 mg/kg) or silymarin (25 mg/kg) was administered orally for seven days. The antioxidant effect was assessed by measuring total phenolics, flavonoids, and DPPH free radical scavenging. BCAE treatment significantly prevented CCl4-induced elevations in hepatic marker enzymes (glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, alkaline phosphatase).

The aqueous bark extract (1 g/kg, i.p.) has been shown to protect the liver from CCl4-induced histopathological changes such as fatty degeneration, cell necrosis, ballooning degeneration, and lymphocyte and Kupffer cell aggregation. Isolated mangiferin also heals the liver from damage induced by CCl4.

B. ceiba leaf extract is described as a highly protective and promising therapeutic agent against inflammation and oxidative stress in a non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) model induced by a high-calorie/high-fat diet.

Evidence strength: Multiple corroborating animal studies using different plant parts and extraction methods. Mechanism attributed to antioxidant polyphenols. No human clinical data published in available sources.

4.3 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

In a preclinical study, both tested doses of leaf extracts (200 and 400 mg/kg body weight) exhibited significant (p<0.05) central and peripheral analgesic effects compared to morphine (2 mg/kg) and diclofenac sodium (50 mg/kg) reference standards, respectively. The 400 mg/kg body weight extract demonstrated anti-diarrheal activity, reducing 54.17% of diarrheal episodes in mice compared to 70.83% inhibition with loperamide.

Molecular docking investigations showed that isolated compounds had better or comparable binding affinity to glutathione reductase enzyme, mu-opioid receptor, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), glucose transporter 3 (GLUT-3), and kappa opioid receptor — consistent with observed antioxidant, analgesic, hypoglycemic, and anti-diarrheal properties.

Evidence strength: Animal and in silico data only. The COX-2 binding result for isolated compounds is computational, not confirmed in human tissue. Evidence is preliminary.

4.4 Antioxidant Activity

B. ceiba flower (BCF) exhibited excellent antioxidant activities including DPPH radical-scavenging activity, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), reducing power, and inhibition of phosphatidylcholine liposome peroxidation. It also showed promising abilities to scavenge hydroxyl free radicals, protect against lipid peroxidation induced by ascorbyl radicals and peroxynitrite, and inhibit myeloperoxidase.

In a study of stem bark extract, phenolic content was 133.21 ± 1.56 μg GAE/mg of extract, while flavonoid content was 997.93 ± 2.14 μg QE/mg. The plant extract demonstrated strong antiradical activity with EC50 18.78 ± 0.69 and 23.62 ± 1.99 μg/ml for nitric oxide and DPPH assay respectively, while the EC50 for reducing power activity was 139.4 ± 0.98 μg/ml.

Evidence strength: Multiple robust in vitro studies. No human clinical data on antioxidant endpoints available.

4.5 Antimicrobial Activity

Stem bark extract displayed inhibitory effect against microbial growth with S. typhi as the most resistant strain and Staphylococcus aureus as the most sensitive. This study revealed that B. ceiba of local origin has broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. This is thought to be attributable to phenolic and flavonoid compounds that form complexes with extracellular and soluble proteins and with bacterial cell walls.

Antibacterial activity of stem bark extract of B. ceiba against multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi has been reported. Root ethanolic extract has also been shown to have activity against Helicobacter pylori.

In the Unani system of medicine, Mocharas is used in the treatment of various infectious diseases. In a laboratory study, various extracts of Mocharas were tested for antibacterial activity against gram-positive organisms (Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Corynebacterium xerosis, and Bacillus cereus) and gram-negative organisms (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Proteus vulgaris). Results were compared to standard drugs ciprofloxacin and gentamicin.

Evidence strength: In vitro only. No controlled clinical antimicrobial trials identified in available sources.

4.6 Aphrodisiac and Sexual Function Activity

Animal study (male mice, roots): The aphrodisiac activity of B. ceiba root extract was investigated. The extract (400 mg/kg body weight/day) was administered orally by gavage for 28 days to male mice. Mount latency (ML), intromission latency (IL), ejaculation latency (EL), mounting frequency (MF), intromission frequency (IF), ejaculation frequency (EF), and post-ejaculatory interval (PEI) were the parameters observed at days 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28. Sexually active and inactive animals showed increased and improved sexual performance when the root extract (400 mg/kg body weight) was administered for 21 to 28 days.

Animal study (male rats, roots, Andrologia 2012): In animals treated with B. ceiba extract, a gain in body and sexual organ weights was observed. Mount, intromission, and ejaculation frequencies were significantly improved (p<0.05). An increase in serum testosterone levels was also observed, but it was not statistically significant (p>0.05). Seminal fructose content and epididymal sperm count were significantly improved. Penile erection index was also higher compared to control group animals. Hesitation time was significantly reduced (p<0.01), and copulatory rate was doubled in treated animals compared with control group animals.

Evidence strength: Animal studies only (male rodents). The increase in serum testosterone was not statistically significant in the rat study. No human clinical trials are available in published sources.

4.7 Anticancer / Cytotoxic Activity

Despite decades of research, studies on the in vitro anticancer/genotoxic activity of B. ceiba flower remain restricted. Research has explored the effect of ethanol extract from B. ceiba flowers on three human cancer cell lines: lung A549, liver HepG2, and liver Huh7. Cytotoxic and genotoxic activity was examined by MTT and comet assay, respectively. Ethanol extract from B. ceiba flowers had high polyphenol content with very potent antioxidant activity. The extract displayed moderate cytotoxicity against Huh7 cells and no cytotoxicity against HepG2 and A549 cells.

The flower extract demonstrated potent in vitro anticancer and antidiabetic activities. Flavonoids in Bombax ceiba extracts show potential for anticancer and anti-inflammatory applications, with specific IC50 values identified.

Evidence strength: Cell line (in vitro) data only. Results are inconsistent across cell lines (cytotoxicity observed in Huh7 but not HepG2 or A549). No animal tumor model or human clinical data are available in published sources.

4.8 Antiurolithiatic (Kidney Stone) Activity

The young fruit section of the plant is useful against chronic inflammation as well as bladder and kidney ulcers. It also demonstrates activity in the precipitation of calcium stones. The precise molecular mechanisms behind the antiurolithiatic effects of Bombax ceiba remain uncertain; however, protection against oxalate-induced lipid peroxidation may help recovery from renal injury.

Evidence strength: Preliminary; mechanisms uncertain. No clinical data identified.

4.9 Hypotensive Activity

Different parts of Bombax ceiba have been shown to possess biological properties including hypotensive activity. This activity has been reported in preclinical models, but the specific studies with methodological detail were not identified in the peer-reviewed sources available for this article.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Bombax

• Endocrine/Metabolic System: Antidiabetic, antihyperglycemic, hypolipidemic, and antiglycation activities supported by animal data.
• Hepatic (Liver) System: BCF has been found to prevent CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity and demonstrated potent in vitro anticancer and antidiabetic activities.
• Immune/Inflammatory System: Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities documented in vitro and in animal models.
• Reproductive System: Reported activities include androgenic and anabolic, aphrodisiac, and spermatogenic properties.
• Gastrointestinal System: Preventive and therapeutic effects on ethanol-induced gastric injury have been reported for the flower extract. Anti-diarrheal and astringent uses are documented in traditional use.
• Urinary / Renal System: Traditional use for diuresis, haematuria, and antiurolithiatic effects.
• Antimicrobial (Infectious Disease): Broad-spectrum antibacterial and anti-H. pylori activity in vitro.
• Dermatological System: Topical traditional uses for acne, wounds, boils, skin blemishes, and leprosy.
• Oncology (preliminary): Moderate in vitro cytotoxicity against Huh7 hepatocellular carcinoma cells; inconsistent results across other cell lines.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are drawn directly from the cited research studies. They are not clinical recommendations.

• Leaf hydroalcoholic extract (antidiabetic, rats): 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight; mangiferin isolated constituent at 20 mg/kg body weight, in STZ-induced diabetic rats, studied over 20 days.
• Flower aqueous extract (hepatoprotective, rats): 250 or 500 mg/kg, administered daily orally for seven days (compared to silymarin 25 mg/kg as reference).
• Root hydroalcoholic extract (aphrodisiac, male mice): 400 mg/kg body weight/day administered orally by gavage for 28 days.
• Leaf methanolic extract (hypoglycemic, mice): 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight, with blood glucose measured at 30, 60, 120, and 180 min post-administration.
• Leaf extract (anti-diarrheal, mice): 400 mg/kg body weight, reducing 54.17% of diarrheal episodes compared to 70.83% with loperamide.
• Aqueous bark extract (hepatoprotective, CCl4 model): 1 g/kg intraperitoneally, protecting from liver histopathological changes.

No standardized human dosage has been established in peer-reviewed clinical trials as reported in available sources.

7. Safety Considerations

Short-Term Toxicity (Animal Studies)

In preclinical work on the root hydroalcoholic extract, the drug was found to be devoid of any general conspicuous short-term toxicity. Long-term toxicity studies as well as systemic toxicity, if any, remain to be studied. Since this drug is used in ethnomedical practices without any recorded toxicity, the plant is likely to be a safe drug.

It has proved to be safe in various toxicity studies; however, it still needs extensive scientific exploration.

Absence of Long-Term Human Safety Data

Long-term toxicity studies, as well as systemic toxicity if any, remain to be studied. There are no published clinical trials in the available sources that formally assess safety parameters in human subjects. The absence of recorded toxicity in ethnomedicinal use cannot substitute for rigorous clinical pharmacovigilance data.

Genotoxicity Signal (In Vitro)

Ethanol extract from B. ceiba flowers had high polyphenol content with very potent antioxidant activity, and displayed moderate cytotoxicity against Huh7 liver cancer cells (but no cytotoxicity against HepG2 and A549 cells). The comet assay methodology in that study was applied to evaluate genotoxic potential in cancer cell lines, a finding that requires further investigation before clinical interpretation.

Knowledge Gaps

Key safety-relevant information absent from the current literature includes: drug–herb interaction profiles, effects in pregnant or lactating women, pediatric safety, safety in hepatic or renal impairment, and carcinogenicity data. More research is still needed on the isolation of phytochemicals and pharmacological evidence related to the plant, especially considering the potential and traditional uses of the plant species.

References

• Phyto-pharmacological and computational profiling of Bombax ceiba Linn. Leaves revealed pharmacological properties against oxidation, hyperglycemia, pain, and diarrhea – PMC (2024)
• Evaluation of efficacy of Bombax ceiba extract and its major constituent, mangiferin in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats – PubMed (2020)
• Polyphenol Content, Antioxidant, Cytotoxic, and Genotoxic Activities of Bombax ceiba Flowers in Liver Cancer Cells Huh7 – PMC (2022)
• Comparative Evaluation of Various Extraction Techniques for Secondary Metabolites from Bombax ceiba L. Flowering Plants along with In Vitro Anti-Diabetic Performance – PMC (2022)
• Antibacterial and Antioxidant Potential of Stem Bark Extract of Bombax ceiba Collected Locally from South Punjab Area of Pakistan – PMC (2017)
• Systematics, Phytochemistry, Biological Activities and Health Promoting Effects of the Plants from the Subfamily Bombacoideae (Family Malvaceae) – PMC (2021)
• A preliminary study of the chemical composition and bioactivity of Bombax ceiba L. flower and its potential mechanism in treating type 2 diabetes mellitus using UPLC-QTOF-MS and network pharmacology – PMC / Frontiers in Nutrition (2022)
• Hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity of Bombax ceiba flowers against carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats – Hepatoma Research (2016)
• Effect of Bombax ceiba L. on spermatogenesis, sexual behaviour and erectile function in male rats – Andrologia (2012)
• Antidiabetic and Hepatoprotective Activities of Bombax ceiba Young Roots in Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Mice – Journal of Nutritional Health and Food Science (2018)
• Aphrodisiac Activity of Bombax ceiba Linn. Extract in Male Mice – PharmatuTor
• Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Bombax ceiba L. Flowers as Source of Functional Food Development: A Review – PubMed (2025)
• The identification, etymology and uses of Bombax ceiba (semal) sold by street vendors as Semarkanda: a review – Indian Journal of History of Science, Springer (2022)
• A Review on Medicinal Potential of Mocharas (Bombax ceiba L.) – Hippocratic Journal of Unani Medicine
• Review on Traditional uses, Biological activities, Phytoconstituents of Bombax ceiba Linn. – Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology (2020)
• Bombax ceiba Linn: An Ethnopharmacological Update – Der Pharma Chemica
• A Comprehensive Review on Therapeutic Properties of Bombax ceiba – Pakistan BioMedical Journal (2023)
• Bombax ceiba Linn. leaf extract rich in phenolic compounds to mitigate non-alcoholic fatty liver-related complications in experimental model – PubMed (2023)
• Bombax ceiba L. – World Flora Online (2026)
• Complete chloroplast genome sequence of the red silk cotton tree (Bombax ceiba) – PMC (2021)