Carqueja (Baccharis trimera and Related Species)
1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Nomenclature, and Natural Source
Taxonomy and Synonymy
Carqueja refers primarily to Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC., whose synonyms include B. genistelloides var. trimera, B. triptera, and Molina trimera. It is a perennial dioecious shrub-like herb, standing 40–50 cm tall, native to northeastern Argentina, Bolivia, southern and southeastern Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The best-known synonyms used in the literature are B. trimera and B. crispa, applied mainly to the same plant used against diabetes, obesity, gastrointestinal, and liver problems.
The popular name "carqueja" came into general use to indicate all species from the section Caulopterae of the genus Baccharis, which are often difficult to distinguish from one another. Phytochemical studies indicate that the different species from this section contain similar compound classes, especially essential oils, flavonoids, and diterpenes, but much variation is encountered in relation to the individual compounds within species. The Baccharis genus is composed of more than 400 species native to tropical and subtropical America.
The plant belongs to the family Asteraceae (the daisy family). The aerial stems of three species commonly named "carquejas" are used either in folk medicine or to obtain phytotherapeutic drugs: Baccharis articulata (Lam.) Persoon, Baccharis crispa Sprengel, and Baccharis trimera (Less.) De Candolle, all members of the Asteraceae. The first two are official entries in the Farmacopea Nacional Argentina, 6th ed. Other common species called carqueja in Brazil include Baccharis trinervis and B. gaudichaudiana, which look similar (smaller in height and smaller wings) and are sometimes used as substitutes for B. genistelloides.
Common Names
Common names for carqueja include: bacanta, bacárida, cacaia-amarga, cacalia amara, cacália-amarga, cacália-amargosa, cacliadoce, carqueja amara, carqueja-amargosa, carqueja-do-mato, carquejilla, carquejinha, chinchimani, chirca melosa, condamina, cuchi-cuchi, quimsa-kuchu, quinsu-cucho, quina-de-condamiana, tiririca-de-balaio, tres-espigas, and vassoura. The parts used are the entire plant and aerial parts.
Morphology and Habitat
A morphological feature of B. trimera is its three-winged cladodes, which are responsible for the photosynthesis process since this species has small or absent leaves. Such cladodes are employed in folk medicine as infusions or decoctions with digestive, analgesic, diuretic, anti-rheumatic, antiseptic, anti-diabetic, antispasmodic, and aphrodisiac properties, or as a dietary supplement to support weight management.
Baccharis trimera is included in the National List of Medicinal Plants of Interest to the Unified Health System (RENISUS) and the Pharmacotherapeutic Formulary of the Brazilian Pharmacopeia. It has been known for a long time as being of medicinal use, and for this reason it was included in the first and fourth editions of the Brazilian Pharmacopeia.
Common Forms and Preparations
Baccharis trimera is employed as a decoction or infusion for the treatment of low to moderate ailments, and it is also a rich source of essential oil valuable in the fragrance industry, mainly owing to carquejyl acetate, carquejol, and several sesquiterpenic alcohols contributing to its characteristic aroma reminiscent of rosewood. The popular use of Baccharis trimera consists of drinking 50–200 ml/day of an aqueous infusion (4–5 g) of the dried herb. Additional prepared forms documented in research include hydroethanolic extracts, ethanolic extracts, standardized phenolic-enriched fractions, and isolated essential oils, primarily used in laboratory and preclinical investigations.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
Indigenous and Early Colonial Use
The Latin American medicinal plant carqueja derives its name from a morphologically similar plant from the Iberian peninsula. Recovered information from manuscripts elaborated in the Jesuit missions, originally authored by the Jesuit friar Pedro de Montenegro around 1710, indicates that carqueja was used by the Guaraní Indians of southern Latin America for wound treatment. This traditional use was largely lost, and nowadays the plant is mainly indicated for intestinal problems, as a tonic, or for treatment of diabetes.
Indigenous peoples of the rainforest have utilized this herb for centuries to cure common ailments. Its uses in herbal medicine were first formally recorded in Brazil in 1931 by Pio Corrêa, who wrote about an infusion of carqueja being used for sterility in women and impotency in men. Although carqueja has been used for centuries in Brazil, this 1931 record represents the first documented medicinal use in the literature.
Around 1800, a possible confusion with quina (cinchona) led to the alternative popular name "Quina de Condamine." The confusion about the identification of individual species within the carqueja group persists to the present day.
Traditional Preparations and Intended Uses Across Cultures
Medicinal teas prepared from the aerial parts of B. trimera are used in folk medicine to treat not only gastrointestinal and liver diseases, but also inflammatory processes, and the plant is the official species of the Brazilian Pharmacopeia.
B. trimera is commonly used by the Brazilian population because of its diuretic properties, analgesic effect, and ability to reduce stomach pain and to control diabetes and hypertension. In folk medicine, preparations of the cladodes are used as infusions or decoctions attributed with digestive, analgesic, diuretic, anti-rheumatic, antiseptic, antidiabetic, antispasmodic, and aphrodisiac properties, or as a dietary supplement to lose weight.
In Argentina, Baccharis articulata and B. crispa are among the most used species in commercial products. B. articulata is used as a diuretic and digestive in folk medicine in South America, and the aerial parts are used to prepare extracts to treat gastrointestinal, inflammatory, and liver problems.
Carqueja is one of the more widely known and used medicinal plants in Brazil and other parts of South America. It is as popular in Brazil as a natural herbal liver aid and digestive aid as milk thistle is in the United States and Europe. Many of its traditional uses have been verified by research, and it appears in the official pharmacopeias of several South American countries as a specific liver and digestive aid.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
Major Phytochemical Classes
Considering phytochemical studies, flavonoids, terpenes, and chlorogenic acids are the main classes of compounds identified in aerial parts of B. trimera, and these have been correlated with biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, antifungal, antiparasitic activity, and support for weight management.
Flavonoids
The flavonoids reported in B. trimera include apigenin, 7,4′-di-O-methyl-apigenin, cirsimaritin, eupatorin, genkwanin, hispidulin, isoquercetin, luteolin, nepetin, quercetin, 3-O-methylquercetin, 5,6-dihydroxy-7,3′,4′-trimethoxyflavone, and rutin. The plant contains up to 20% flavonoids, including quercetin, luteolin, nepetin, apigenin, and hispidulin, which are considered the main active constituents. Studies have shown that hispidulin has a particularly beneficial effect upon the liver, though it is more effective when used in combination with the whole plant.
Terpenoids and Saponins
The phenolic compounds identified in B. trimera include the full range of flavonoids listed above; in relation to terpenoids, B. trimera presents mainly saponins, among which echinocystic acid is the major aglycone. Several novel plant chemicals called clerodane diterpenoids have also been identified, and it has been shown that these had maximum effects against parasitic worms in pharmacological testing.
Specific bioactive fractions identified and isolated from the aqueous extract of B. trimera include chlorogenic acids, flavonoids, an ent-clerodane diterpene, and a dilactonic neo-clerodane diterpene. A bioassay-monitored fractionation of a chloroform extract from the aerial parts of B. trimera yielded a mixture that blocked Ca²⁺-induced contractions of KCl-depolarized rat portal vein preparations; pharmacological tests of two pure compounds isolated from the mixture revealed the dilactonic clerodane diterpene as the active compound.
Essential Oil Constituents
The essential oil of B. trimera is mainly composed of carquejol, carquejyl acetate, α- and β-pinene, trans-β-ocimene, nerolidol, and spathulenol. Carquejyl acetate and carquejol are present in the essential oil and have been proposed as chemotaxonomic markers of this species; nevertheless, some populations of B. trimera without these compounds have been reported, suggesting the existence of a novel chemotype or chemical variation arising from different environmental conditions.
A gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) investigation of B. trimera growing wild in Uruguay identified 150 compounds, 79 of them not previously reported for this species, with relative proportions that varied according to season. An early GC-FID analysis of a population of B. trimera from Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) found carquejyl acetate (69.2%), β-pinene (8.4%), carquejol (6.8%), α-pinene (6.4%), and camphene (2.6%) as major components.
The essential oil from Baccharis trimera is cited as one of the ten most consumed oils by the cosmetic and other industries in Brazil.
Chlorogenic Acids and Polyphenols
Although it contains the polyphenols quercetin and rutin as well as phenolic acids such as caffeoylquinic acids, there are no descriptions in the literature of its use against neurodegenerative disorders. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry of a B. trimera infusion showed the presence of 15 compounds distributed in three main classes: caffeic acid derivatives, flavonoid derivatives, and diterpenoids of the clerodane type.
4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
4.1 Gastrointestinal Protection and Antiulcer Activity
Studies have investigated the mechanisms involved in the antacid/antisecretory action of aqueous extracts and isolated compounds from Baccharis trimera. Using in vivo models, including cold-restraint stress gastric ulcers and pylorus-ligated mice, and in vitro acid secretion assays in rabbit gastric glands and gastric microsomal H⁺,K⁺-ATPase preparations, researchers tested nine fractions previously isolated from the extract.
Intraduodenal injection of the aqueous extract at 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg in 4-hour pylorus-ligated mice decreased the volume (20% and 50%) and total acidity (34% and 50%) of acid secretion compared to control values. When administered orally at the same doses, the extract protected against gastric mucosal lesions induced in mice by restraint at 4°C.
A diterpene fraction (F8/diterpene 2) and a flavonoid fraction (F9) decreased both histamine- and carbachol-induced acid secretion in vitro; the dilactonic neo-clerodane diterpene (F10) was inactive against secretagogue-induced acid secretion. The diterpene 2 was the most active of all tested compounds, being 7-fold less potent than ranitidine and equipotent to atropine in reducing acid secretion in vitro. This compound also reduced gastric H⁺,K⁺-ATPase activity by 20% of control.
Evidence strength: These are preclinical studies (animal models and in vitro). No controlled human clinical trials in this area have been identified in the reviewed literature.
4.2 Hepatoprotective (Liver-Protective) Effects
A preclinical study investigated the protective effect of B. trimera against acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatic damage in rats. The liver function markers ALT and AST, biomarkers of oxidative stress, antioxidant parameters, and histopathological changes were examined. Pretreatment with B. trimera attenuated the serum activities of ALT and AST that were enhanced by APAP. Pretreatment also decreased the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), increased catalase activity and total glutathione concentration, and histopathological analysis confirmed alleviation of liver damage and reduced APAP-induced lesions.
A study evaluated the protective effect of B. trimera in an ethanol-induced hepatotoxicity model both in vitro and in vivo. The antioxidant capacity was assessed by DPPH radical scavenging, quantification of reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), and the transcription factor Nrf2. Hepatotoxicity was induced acutely (2 days of absolute ethanol) and chronically (28 days). B. trimera promoted a decrease in ROS and NO, and at low concentrations promoted increased transcription of Nrf2.
In a preclinical model involving multiple cardiovascular and hepatic risk factors, treatment with a B. trimera extract at doses of 30 and 100 mg/kg decreased hepatic and fecal lipids. In contrast to an insulin-plus-simvastatin treatment group, all three doses of B. trimera effectively reduced AST and ALT levels, suggesting that B. trimera may be a promising hepatoprotective agent against hepatic lesions caused by multiple risk factors.
Studies that sought to validate the hepatoprotective popular use were conducted using ethanolic extracts of the plant, which does not reflect the ethnomedicinal use of this species in humans (where aqueous infusions are the norm).
Evidence strength: Hepatoprotective evidence is derived entirely from in vitro and animal models. No human clinical trials are available. The mechanistic basis (Nrf2 activation, antioxidant enzyme modulation) is supported by multiple preclinical investigations.
4.3 Antidiabetic and Hypoglycemic Activity
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder associated with increased oxidative stress. Many plants are popularly used in its treatment, including Baccharis trimera (carqueja). A study explored the potential of the B. trimera hydroethanolic extract in preventing redox stress induced by diabetes and examined its hypoglycemic properties in experimental animals.
After seven days of experimentation, the non-treated diabetic group showed changes in biochemical parameters (urea, triacylglycerol, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase) and increased carbonyl protein levels. Regarding antioxidant enzymes, an increase in superoxide dismutase activity was observed, but a decrease in catalase and glutathione peroxidase activity was noted, suggesting redox stress. The mRNA of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase enzymes were also altered. Treatment of diabetic rats with B. trimera extract resulted in an improved glycemic profile and liver function, decreased oxidative damage, and altered expression of mRNA of the antioxidant enzymes. These results suggest that B. trimera hydroethanolic extract has a protective effect against diabetes.
Although preliminary results suggest that some extracts of carqueja may help lower high levels of blood sugar, there is not enough scientific evidence to support the use of carqueja to treat any condition in humans.
A review of the literature found no studies of greater methodological robustness such as clinical trials, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses on this topic. The studies do point to the effects of Baccharis trimera as an antidiabetic plant due to its hypoglycemic potential, but a gap remains for its indication as a phytotherapeutic agent in cardiovascular diseases.
Evidence strength: Antidiabetic evidence is preclinical only (animal/in vitro). No human randomized controlled trials have been identified. Evidence for blood-glucose-lowering effects is considered preliminary.
4.4 Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Activity
The total phenolic content and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of six extracts (dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, butanol, aqueous, saponin, and phenolic) from B. trimera were evaluated. Using carrageenan-induced pleurisy as a model of acute inflammation, the phenolic extract at 15 mg/kg significantly decreased the analyzed parameters compared to the carrageenan-only group. The total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were evaluated by Folin–Ciocalteu and DPPH methods, respectively. Phenolic and ethyl acetate extracts presented higher antioxidant activity than ascorbic acid.
A saponin fraction considerably reduced leukocyte migration (22.04 ± 6.99 and 61.96 ± 3.44% inhibition, p < 0.05), and neutrophil counts decreased as well (56.34 ± 13.3 and 59.72 ± 8.51% inhibition, p < 0.001) when compared to the carrageenan group. Protein concentration significantly decreased at doses of 15 and 30 mg/kg (intraperitoneal).
Many biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, anti-hepatotoxic, and muscle relaxant effects, have been ascribed to B. trimera.
Evidence strength: Exclusively preclinical (animal, in vitro). Mechanistic evidence for anti-inflammatory activity is robust at the laboratory level. No human clinical trials identified.
4.5 Metabolic Syndrome, Obesity, and Lipid Modulation
A study evaluated the efficacy of a Baccharis trimera infusion on high-fat diet-induced metabolic disorders in mice and macrophage activation, examining obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and hepatic steatosis in Swiss mice. The results showed that treatment with B. trimera prevented the mentioned conditions, except for the production of hydrogen peroxide. B. trimera prevented the development of obesity and associated comorbidities, as well as activation of macrophages.
Some of the main bioactive compounds from ethanol or water extracts of B. trimera — including saponins (mainly echinocystic acid) and the flavonoids rutin, apigenin, quercetin, luteolin, eupafolin, and hispidulin — have been investigated in studies in vitro or in animal models related to obesity. For example, the administration of rutin as a supplement at 50 mg/kg for 8 weeks decreased body weight, the mass of peritoneal and epididymal adipose fat pads, serum lipids, hepatic triglycerides, cholesterol, and oxidative stress in rats treated with a high-fat diet.
Preclinical studies of B. trimera reported hypocholesterolemic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcerogenic, antifungal, antibacterial, antiallergic, and anticarcinogenic activity. B. trimera also decreases adipogenesis and has antioxidant activity that can reduce lipid peroxidation, endothelial dysfunction, and cholesterol oxidation, a limiting step in the development of atherosclerosis.
Evidence strength: Preclinical only. No human trials in obesity or lipid management have been identified.
4.6 Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity
The antimicrobial activity of the essential oil from the aerial parts of B. trimera was investigated against Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228, Proteus vulgaris ATCC 13315, Micrococcus luteus ATCC 7468, and Corynebacterium xerosis IAL105 — the main bacteria responsible for bad perspiration odor — using a gas chromatography analysis and microdilution assay. Twenty constituents were identified, with β-pinene (23.4%) as the major compound found.
In antifungal studies, the major compound found in B. trimera essential oil was carquejyl acetate (74.71%). In in vitro tests, B. trimera essential oil showed a fungistatic action against mycelial growth.
The essential oil of B. trimera has been used in the pharmaceutical industry in view of its antimicrobial properties.
Evidence strength: Antimicrobial/antifungal evidence is limited to in vitro experiments. No clinical antimicrobial trials have been identified.
4.7 Cardiovascular Effects: Vasorelaxation and Hypotensive Activity
A bioassay-monitored fractionation of a chloroform extract from the aerial parts of B. trimera yielded a mixture that blocked Ca²⁺-induced contractions of KCl-depolarized rat portal vein preparations. Pharmacological tests revealed the dilactonic clerodane diterpene as the active vasorelaxant compound. Vasorelaxant activity in rat aortic rings has also been reported.
Evidence strength: Preclinical only (animal/in vitro). The vasorelaxant mechanism (calcium-channel blockade by the dilactonic clerodane diterpene) has been characterized pharmacologically, but no human cardiovascular trials have been conducted.
4.8 Neuroprotective and Antioxidant Activity In Vivo
Using Caenorhabditis elegans as an in vivo model, the antioxidant effects of a carqueja hydroalcoholic extract (CHE) on stress resistance and lifespan were examined, and whether CHE had a protective effect in a C. elegans model for Alzheimer's disease was investigated. CHE treatment improved oxidative stress resistance by increasing survival rate and reducing ROS levels under oxidative stress conditions, independently of the stress-related signaling pathways (p38, JNK, and ERK) and transcription factors (SKN-1/Nrf and DAF-16/Foxo) tested. CHE treatment also increased the defenses against β-amyloid toxicity, in part by increasing proteasome activity and the expression of two heat shock protein genes. These findings suggest a potential neuroprotective use for carqueja.
Evidence strength: This is preliminary evidence from an invertebrate model (C. elegans). The findings are mechanistically interesting but are not directly translatable to human neuroprotection. No mammalian or human neurological studies have been identified.
4.9 Antiproliferative and Cytotoxic Activity (Cancer Cell Lines)
An investigation of the anti-proliferative properties of phenolic (PHE) and terpenoid (SAP) compounds from B. trimera on human cervical cancer (SiHa cells) found that PHE treatment for 24 hours suppressed colony formation in a dose-dependent manner, inhibited proliferation, and inhibited cell motility. Although SAP inhibited the proliferation of SiHa cells in a dose-dependent manner, it increased colony formation and did not inhibit cell motility. PHE and SAP also promoted a significant increase in lactate dehydrogenase levels in the culture medium in a dose-dependent manner, indicating a loss of cell membrane integrity. PHE promoted necrotic cell death, whereas SAP induced apoptosis.
Evidence strength: In vitro only (cell line study). Findings cannot be extrapolated to clinical anti-cancer efficacy.
5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Carqueja
- Digestive system: In popular medicine, infusions of the aerial parts of carqueja are commonly used to treat gastrointestinal, liver, and a variety of inflammatory diseases.
- Hepatobiliary system: Carqueja is a plant widely distributed in South America and has been traditionally used for treating several diseases particularly associated with hepatic and gastric disorders.
- Endocrine/metabolic system: Ethnobotanical studies indicate that this species is used for the treatment of diabetes and digestive and liver diseases.
- Immune/inflammatory system: Ethnobotanical studies also indicate the use of carqueja for inflammatory processes; flavonoids, terpenes, and chlorogenic acids are the main classes of compounds identified in aerial parts; preclinical pharmacological properties include anti-inflammatory, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, hypotriglyceridemic, and hypoglycemic effects.
- Cardiovascular system: Despite the important preclinical therapeutic actions of B. trimera against dyslipidemia, no studies have simultaneously investigated the effects of this medicinal species on multiple cardiovascular risk factors in humans; a preclinical model of dyslipidemia, hypertension, and tobacco smoking was used to evaluate cardioprotective effects.
- Neurological system: Carqueja hydroalcoholic extract increased defenses against β-amyloid toxicity in a C. elegans model, in part by increasing proteasome activity and the expression of heat shock protein genes, suggesting a potential neuroprotective use.
- Integumentary/antimicrobial: The essential oil of B. trimera has been used in the pharmaceutical industry in view of its antimicrobial properties.
6. Overall State of Clinical Evidence
Despite all the promising effects of B. trimera in in vitro and preclinical studies, there are practically no clinical studies to prove the effects of this plant. With evidence of its effects, B. trimera can potentially become a registered evidence-based drug, but further systemic studies in humans are necessary.
A systematic literature review found no studies of greater methodological robustness such as clinical trials, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses on the topic of carqueja's cardiovascular and metabolic effects. The totality of the pharmacological evidence base for carqueja is derived from in vitro assays, animal models, and one invertebrate in vivo study. No randomized controlled human clinical trials have been published in any of the areas reviewed.
7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Research
The following dosages and preparations appear in the scientific literature and are reported here strictly as stated in those sources, not as recommendations:
- Traditional aqueous infusion (popular use, Brazil): 50–200 ml/day of an aqueous infusion (4–5 g) of the dried herb.
- Aqueous extract, intraduodenal/oral (preclinical, mice): 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg administered intraduodenally or orally in pylorus-ligated or cold-restraint stress models, respectively.
- Phenolic extract, intraperitoneal (preclinical, pleurisy model): 15 mg/kg, which significantly decreased analyzed inflammation parameters.
- Saponin fraction, intraperitoneal (preclinical, pleurisy model): Doses of 15 and 30 mg/kg (intraperitoneal), which considerably reduced leukocyte migration and neutrophil counts.
- Extract, oral (preclinical, hepatotoxicity/diabetes model): 30 and 100 mg/kg (oral) of B. trimera extract in a rodent model of metabolic risk factors, which decreased hepatic and fecal lipids.
- Carqueja hydroalcoholic extract (CHE) (invertebrate in vivo, C. elegans): Three concentrations tested: 0.5, 5, and 50 mg/mL.
No standardized or validated human clinical dosages have been established in peer-reviewed literature.
8. Safety Considerations and Interactions
General Toxicological Profile
Carqueja is considered safe and non-toxic at conventional doses. Toxicity studies with rats indicated no toxic effects when various leaf/stem extracts were given at up to 2 g/kg in body weight.
Although aqueous preparations of Baccharis trimera, as decoction and infusion, have been widely used to treat different pathologies in Brazil, there are still few reports of their toxicological potential. In vivo toxicity was evaluated by the genotoxic potential for kidney and liver cells and by the level of Pi class cytosolic GST activities in the liver after oral and daily treatment of mice with Baccharis trimera samples for 15 days.
No genotoxic effects for blood cells or liver were observed after treatment of mice with the aqueous extract, but the frequency of micronucleus in bone marrow cells increased, indicating a chromosomal mutagenic activity in that tissue. However, an antimutagenic effect of Baccharis trimera has also been described and attributed to the flavones genkwanin, cirsimaritin, hispidulin, and apigenin.
Pregnancy and Lactation
Carqueja should not be used during pregnancy, as it has demonstrated uterine stimulant and abortive effects in rats. Carqueja is not recommended during pregnancy and breastfeeding due to lack of sufficient data.
Hypotensive Effects
The use of this plant is contraindicated in persons with low blood pressure due to its documented hypotensive effects.
Blood Glucose Interactions
Carqueja has been documented to lower blood glucose levels in human and animal studies. Carqueja may affect blood sugar levels, and caution is advised in patients with diabetes or hypoglycemia, and in those taking drugs, herbs, or supplements that affect blood sugar.
Allergy and Cross-Reactivity
Carqueja should be avoided by persons with known allergy or hypersensitivity to carqueja (Baccharis trimera), its constituents, or members of the Asteraceae/Compositae family, such as dandelion, goldenrod, ragweed, sunflower, and daisies.
Species Identification and Adulteration
Species of carquejas exhibit cladodes with 2 to 5 wings along the stem axis, and anatomical characteristics play a crucial role in distinguishing them, including epidermal features, stomatal types, trichome morphology, mesophyll organization, and the presence of various crystal morphotypes. The taxonomic confusion among carqueja species raises a practical safety concern, given that another well-known species in the family, B. cordifolia, is toxic to grazing animals. Accurate botanical identification of commercial material is therefore necessary.
Other Related Species Toxicity
Other species of the genus Baccharis may present marked toxicity, raising concerns about the use of plants from this genus when species identity is not confirmed.
References
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