Casearia esculenta

Casearia esculenta: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Profile

Scientific Classification and Nomenclature

Casearia esculenta Roxb. belongs to the Kingdom Plantae, Family Salicaceae (formerly classified under Flacourtiaceae), Genus Casearia, and Species C. esculenta. The plant was first formally described by William Roxburgh and is defined in various authoritative botanical sources. The species has accumulated a number of taxonomic synonyms over its botanical history. Recognized synonyms include Casearia ovata Willd., Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd., Casearia ovata Wall., Casearia ovata Roxb., Casearia zeylanica Thwaites, Casearia zeylanica (Gaertn.) Thwaites, Guidonia esculenta Baill., and Guidonia esculenta (Roxb.) Baill.

The plant is recorded in the International Plant Names Index (IPNI) under the authority Casearia esculenta Roxb., with its original description appearing in Hortus Bengalensis and Flora Indica, key early botanical references of the East India Company's Botanical Garden at Calcutta.

Common Names

The plant is popularly known as "Kadala-Zhinjill" and "Kottarkovai" in Tamil, "Wild cowrie fruit" in English, and "Saptarangi" in Sanskrit. In India, the plant is also referred to by the name "Saptarangi." Additional vernacular names documented from wisdom literature include "Doddahanice," "Kuti," "Cherukannan," "Vellakannan," "Hillange," "Pannimuranga," "Kolayayili," "Tsjerakanneli," "Kottargovai," "Kondajunguru," "Malampavetta," "Saptacakrah," and "Talaparnika," among others. The herb is notable for having seven whorls in its stem with a dark yellow colored bark, a feature that gives it the Sanskrit name "Saptarangi" (meaning seven colors) and "Saptachakra" (meaning seven whorls).

Morphological Description and Habitat

C. esculenta is often only a shrub when growing in the open, though it can become more tree-like when growing in forests; it can grow up to 6 metres tall. Leaves are lanceolate, glossy, and alternate, measuring roughly 8–15 cm long. The bark is smooth and gray-brown, sometimes peeling in thin strips. It adapts well to tropical and subtropical climates, often found at edges of moist forests, riverbanks, and fallow agricultural land. The plant is a shrub richly distributed in the Konkan plateau and South India.

The plant is a popular medicine in India, where it is harvested from the wild for local use and for sale in local markets. The plant is also occasionally used as a food. The fruit is a capsule containing several seeds. Although the capsule of some species is somewhat toxic, the fleshy aril surrounding the seeds in this species is often eaten.

Taxonomic Context within the Genus

Casearia (Salicaceae sensu lato) species have been used as folk medicines in South American and Asian countries since ancient times. Previous phytochemical screenings demonstrated that the Casearia plants mainly contain clerodane diterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, phenylpropanoids, and other constituents from different chemical classes. Pharmacological studies confirmed that crude extracts or individual compounds from the genus showed cytotoxic, hypoglycemic, antiulcer, and anti-inflammatory activities, as well as anti-snake venom property; a summary of the secondary metabolites isolated from Casearia species was published through May 2013.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda and Indian Folk Medicine

C. esculenta is a medicinal plant traditionally used in various regions of Asia, particularly in India, where its roots and leaves have been incorporated into local diets and traditional remedies for centuries. Historically, it has been valued for its purported anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and digestive properties. Folk medicine has recommended its use for treating ailments such as rheumatism, skin diseases, and gastrointestinal disorders.

The plant is native to India and parts of Southeast Asia, and for centuries indigenous communities and practitioners of Ayurveda have valued its roots, leaves, and bark for their therapeutic properties. Its roots are particularly renowned for managing digestive disorders, including dyspepsia and constipation. The plant's anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties have made it a traditional choice for treating swelling, wounds, and rheumatic complaints.

C. esculenta has also featured prominently in herbal concoctions aimed at purifying the blood and alleviating skin conditions such as eczema and boils. Traditional healers often combined its extracts with other botanicals like neem, turmeric, and ashwagandha to create synergistic blends that enhance its detoxifying and healing effects.

C. esculenta is used in traditional systems of medicine across India, such as Ayurveda and folk medicine, for a variety of ailments including edema (swelling). The roots and tubers of this plant are believed to possess diuretic properties, which can help remove excess fluid from the body—a common approach in the traditional management of edema. Its mild diuretic action has also contributed to its inclusion in remedies for urinary tract health and the elimination of toxins from the body.

C. esculenta (Flacourtiaceae) is one such plant in Indian traditional medicine, and the plant has been a popular remedy for the treatment of diabetes. This antidiabetic use is repeatedly referenced in major Indian pharmaceutical compilations including Asolkar et al. (1992), Wealth of India (1992), and Yoganarasimhan (2000), as cited in peer-reviewed literature.

Siddha Medicine

The plant is recorded in Ayurveda and Siddha systems of medicine in the Indian Medicinal Plants, Phytochemistry And Therapeutics (IMPPAT) database, under the synonymous name Casearia zeylanica. In the Siddha tradition, particularly in Tamil Nadu, the plant's parts were incorporated into compound formulations addressing metabolic and skin-related conditions, consistent with its regional Tamil common names.

Sri Lanka and Regional Traditions

Ethnobotanical surveys have documented its use by indigenous communities to treat swelling and fluid accumulation, and some traditional formulations include Casearia esculenta as an ingredient for this purpose.

Historical Botanical Documentation

Historical references to this plant appear in the Encyclopédie Méthodique, Botanique (1783), Species Plantarum ed. 4 (1799), Hortus Bengalensis (1814), Flora Indica (1832), Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylaniae (1858), Traité de Botanique Médicale Phanérogamique (1883), and the Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India (1972). These records underscore the plant's continuous documentation across nearly two-and-a-half centuries of botanical science.

Food Use

The plant is harvested from the wild for local use as a medicine and is also occasionally used as a food. The edible component is the fleshy aril surrounding the seeds; the fruit capsule itself may carry some risk of toxicity based on properties observed in related species of the genus.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Primary Phytochemical Constituents

Early systematic phytochemical investigation of C. esculenta is documented in the peer-reviewed literature. In the course of a systematic investigation, the following components were isolated: a sterol (m.p. 132–134°); a substance resembling gutta-percha (m.p. 59–60°); a flavonoid compound (m.p. 255–258°); a colorless crystalline compound, neutral and water-soluble (m.p. 184°); and two resins. A reducing sugar present in the drug was identified by paper chromatography as arabinose.

Research has identified the presence of flavonoids, saponins, and glycosides, which are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

3-Hydroxymethyl Xylitol (3-HMX): The Principal Bioactive Compound

The most extensively studied single compound from C. esculenta is 3-hydroxymethyl xylitol (3-HMX). An active compound, 3-hydroxymethyl xylitol (3-HMX), has been isolated and its optimum dose has been determined in a short duration study and patented. Bioassay-guided fractionation techniques were used to isolate 3-hydroxymethyl xylitol, confirmed through various spectral methods.

A significant structural caveat was raised by a 2013 publication in Organic Letters: 3-(Hydroxymethyl)xylitol, a compound reportedly isolated from the root of Casearia esculenta (Roxb.), along with its three possible stereoisomers, was synthesized for the first time. The data for the natural product do not match any of the isomeric 3-(hydroxymethyl)pentitols. The structure of the natural product from the root of Casearia esculenta (Roxb.) has been corrected by reanalysis of the published data. This structural revision is an important consideration when evaluating the earlier pharmacological literature, as the precise stereochemistry of the bioactive entity remains an area of ongoing chemical clarification.

Genus-Level Phytochemistry

As a member of the Casearia genus, C. esculenta shares genus-level chemical characteristics. Phytochemical screenings have demonstrated that Casearia plants mainly contain clerodane diterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, phenylpropanoids, and other constituents from different chemical classes. While clerodane diterpenoids are the most-studied class for cytotoxic activity across the genus, the pharmacological research on C. esculenta specifically has focused primarily on the polyol 3-HMX and aqueous root extracts.

Additionally, C. esculenta contains a sterol (a substance resembling gutta-percha), a flavonoid compound, and two resins.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Glycemic Control and Antidiabetic Activity

Overall Evidence Grade: Preclinical (animal models only); no controlled human clinical trials identified in the published literature.

Aqueous Root Extract Studies

An oral administration of an aqueous extract of Casearia esculenta, an indigenous antidiabetic plant popularly used in South India for diabetes mellitus, lowers blood glucose level under normal and glucose load conditions, and in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes in rats.

An aqueous extract of Casearia esculenta was found to lower blood glucose in basal conditions and after a glucose load in normal rats. Maximum reduction in blood glucose was observed between 2–3 hours at a dose level of 200 and 300 mg/kg body weight.

Isolated Compound 3-HMX Studies

Preliminary research revealed a significant blood glucose lowering effect after oral administration of C. esculenta root extract in normal and streptozotocin-diabetic rats, and no harmful side effects were observed throughout the study. The active compound, 3-hydroxymethyl xylitol (3-HMX), was subsequently isolated on the basis of bioassay-guided fractionation; administration of 3-HMX at 20, 40, and 80 mg/kg body weight gave significant reduction of plasma glucose in streptozotocin-diabetic rats.

In the principal long-term animal study published in European Journal of Pharmacology (2008): An optimum dose of 3-HMX (40 mg/kg body weight) was orally administered for 45 days to streptozotocin-diabetic rats for the assessment of glucose, insulin, hemoglobin (Hb), glycated hemoglobin (HbA₁c), hepatic glycogen, and activities of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes including glucokinase, glucose 6-phosphatase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, as well as hepatic marker enzymes (AST, ALT, ALP, GGT). 3-HMX at 40 mg/kg dose produced similar effects on all biochemical parameters studied as that of glibenclamide, a standard drug. Histological study of pancreas also confirmed the biochemical findings. These results indicate that 3-hydroxymethyl xylitol possesses antihyperglycemic effect on long-term treatment.

Results showed that 3-HMX markedly reduced hyperglycemia in streptozotocin-diabetic rats due to increased insulin secretion and inhibition of gluconeogenesis. This investigation reveals that the active compound 3-hydroxymethyl xylitol from C. esculenta has long-term antidiabetic effect and its activity is similar to glibenclamide. This compound showed no toxic effect on measurement of serum hepatic enzymes.

Mechanism of Action

3-Hydroxymethyl xylitol, a naturally occurring alcohol isolated from Casearia esculenta, demonstrated an increment in the serum insulin level by activating glycolytic pathways and inhibiting elevated gluconeogenesis in diabetic rats. 3-HMX significantly increased levels of glucokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, reversing the decreased activities observed in diabetic models.

Antidiabetic effects of Casearia esculenta were also investigated as early as 1967 by Gupta et al. in Indian Journal of Experimental Biology; and in 2007, the preparation of novel compound 3-hydroxymethyl xylitol with antidiabetic activity from Casearia esculenta root was filed as an Indian patent application (IN 2007CH00268 A).

4.2 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence Grade: Preclinical (animal model data only).

The study was further undertaken to evaluate the antioxidant potential of C. esculenta in STZ diabetic rats. Oral administration of C. esculenta root extract at doses of 200 and 300 mg/kg for 45 days resulted in significant reduction in plasma thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), hydroperoxide, and ceruloplasmin, and a significant elevation in plasma reduced glutathione (GSH), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E). The study indicates that C. esculenta root extract at doses of 200 and 300 mg/kg restored all antioxidant parameters to near normal value.

A PMC-published study examined tissue-level antioxidant effects: Oxidative stress is currently suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus. The study evaluated the effect of Casearia esculenta root extract on oxidative stress-related parameters in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Antidiabetic treatment with C. esculenta root extract (45 days) significantly decreased thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and remarkably improved tissue antioxidant status such as glutathione (GSH), ascorbic acid, and alpha-tocopherol in liver and kidney of STZ-diabetic rats. In diabetic rats, the activities of enzymatic antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) were decreased significantly, while the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) decreased in the liver and increased in the kidney.

4.3 Antihyperlipidemic Activity

Evidence Grade: Preclinical (animal model data only).

The hypolipidemic effect of an aqueous extract of Casearia esculenta root was investigated in an animal study. Administration of the extract at 200 and 300 mg/kg body weight for 45 days resulted in significant reduction in serum and tissue cholesterol, phospholipids, free fatty acids, and triglycerides in STZ diabetic rats. In addition, significant decreases in high density lipoprotein (HDL) and significant increases in low density lipoprotein (LDL) and very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) were observed in STZ diabetic rats, which were normalized after 45 days of C. esculenta treatment.

A dedicated study of 3-HMX's antihyperlipidemic properties was also published: antihyperlipidemic activity of 3-hydroxymethyl xylitol, a novel antidiabetic compound isolated from Casearia esculenta (Roxb.) root, was studied in streptozotocin-diabetic rats, and the results were published in Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Toxicology (2010, 24:95–101).

4.4 Effects on Protein Metabolism and Hepato-Renal Markers

Evidence Grade: Preclinical (animal model data only).

The possible protective effects of Casearia esculenta root extract on certain biochemical markers in STZ-induced diabetes in rats were investigated. STZ treatment (50 mg/kg, ip) caused a hyperglycemic state leading to various physiological and biochemical alterations. Blood levels of glucose, urea, uric acid, and creatinine; plasma levels of albumin and albumin/globulin ratio; and the activities of diagnostic marker enzymes AST, ALT, ALP, and gamma-GT in plasma, liver, and kidney were markedly altered in STZ diabetic rats.

The results of one study demonstrated that treatment of diabetic rats with aqueous extract of C. esculenta caused a noticeable elevation in plasma total protein and albumin levels as compared with their normal levels.

4.5 Effects on Membrane-Bound ATPases

Evidence Grade: Preclinical (animal model data only).

Activities of adenosine triphosphatase (Na⁺/K⁺ATPase, Mg²⁺ATPase, Ca²⁺ATPase, and Total ATPase) in erythrocyte, liver, kidney, and cardiac tissues of control and Casearia esculenta treated STZ diabetic rats were studied. The activity of Na⁺/K⁺ATPase plays a central role in the regulation of intra- and extra-cellular homeostasis, and alteration of this transport system is linked to several complications of diabetes mellitus. Mg²⁺-dependent ATPase activity is responsible for controlling energy-requiring processes in cells, whereas Ca²⁺ATPase is responsible for signal transduction pathways and membrane fluidity.

4.6 Effects on Glycoprotein Components

Evidence Grade: Preclinical (animal model data only).

The role of Casearia esculenta on glycoprotein components was evaluated in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats in plasma, liver, kidney, and cardiac tissues. Streptozotocin injection (50 mg/kg body weight) caused massive elevation of glycoprotein components such as hexose, hexosamine, sialic acid, and fucose in plasma and tissues of diabetic control and experimental animals. Oral administration of C. esculenta root extract (200 and 300 mg/kg body weight) for 45 days significantly reverted the hexose, hexosamine, sialic acid, and fucose levels to near normal values. These results suggest a normalizing effect of C. esculenta on glycoprotein components in STZ diabetic rats.

4.7 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Properties

Evidence Grade: Traditional use with limited preclinical data; no controlled human trials identified.

Historically, Casearia esculenta has been valued for its purported anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and digestive properties. At the genus level, pharmacological studies have confirmed that crude extracts or individual compounds from the Casearia genus show anti-inflammatory activities, but published studies specifically isolating or confirming these mechanisms in C. esculenta per se remain limited in the peer-reviewed record.

4.8 Diuretic Activity and Edema

Evidence Grade: Traditional use with limited and unverified preclinical evidence; no human trials.

Scientific validation for the diuretic use is limited. There are only a handful of preclinical studies exploring the pharmacological activities of Casearia esculenta, and while some animal studies have reported mild diuretic effects, there are no robust clinical trials or comprehensive pharmacological investigations confirming its efficacy or safety for edema in humans.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas

• Endocrine / Metabolic System: In Indian traditional medicine, C. esculenta has been a popular remedy used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Multiple preclinical studies have examined its effects on blood glucose, insulin secretion, glycated hemoglobin, and carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes.
• Hepatic System: Antidiabetic treatment with C. esculenta root extract significantly improved tissue antioxidant status in the liver of STZ-diabetic rats, and several studies have measured hepatic marker enzymes (AST, ALT, ALP, GGT) as indicators of hepatoprotective effects.
• Renal System: Multiple studies have assessed kidney marker enzymes and renal function parameters in STZ-diabetic rat models treated with C. esculenta root extract.
• Cardiovascular / Lipid Metabolism: Preclinical evidence indicates effects on serum and tissue cholesterol, phospholipids, free fatty acids, and triglycerides.
• Gastrointestinal System: The plant's roots are particularly renowned for their efficacy in managing digestive disorders, including dyspepsia and constipation, in traditional medicine contexts.
• Skin: C. esculenta has featured prominently in herbal concoctions aimed at alleviating skin conditions such as eczema and boils.
• Urinary / Fluid Balance: The roots and tubers of this plant are believed to possess diuretic properties, which can help remove excess fluid from the body.
• Musculoskeletal: Folk medicine has recommended its use for treating ailments such as rheumatism.

6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

All dosage information below is taken directly from preclinical (animal) studies. No standardized human clinical dosage has been established in the peer-reviewed literature reviewed for this article.

Aqueous Root Extract

• Oral administration of C. esculenta root extract at doses of 200 and 300 mg/kg body weight for 45 days was used in studies assessing antioxidant and blood glucose parameters in STZ-diabetic rats.
• Maximum reduction in blood glucose was observed between 2–3 hours at dose levels of 200 and 300 mg/kg body weight.
• Oral administration of C. esculenta root extract at 200 and 300 mg/kg body weight for 45 days was used in the glycoprotein metabolism study.

Isolated Compound 3-HMX

• Administration of 3-HMX at 20, 40, and 80 mg/kg body weight gave significant reduction of plasma glucose in streptozotocin-diabetic rats.
• Animals were divided into five groups: control; 3-HMX (40 mg/kg body weight) treated; diabetic; diabetic + 3-HMX (40 mg/kg body weight); and diabetic + glibenclamide (600 μg/kg body weight). 3-HMX was administered orally at a dose of 40 mg/kg of body weight for 45 days.

Forms

The preponderance of experimental work has used aqueous (water-based) root extracts and, more recently, an isolated polyol compound (3-HMX). C. esculenta is increasingly being incorporated into nutritional supplements and herbal formulations. In traditional practice, the plant has been used as decoctions of root material for internal conditions.

7. Safety Considerations

Preclinical Safety Data

Investigation of 3-hydroxymethyl xylitol from C. esculenta showed the compound has long-term antidiabetic effect comparable to glibenclamide and showed no toxic effect on measurement of serum hepatic enzymes. This safety assessment was conducted within a 45-day rat model and has not been extended to formal toxicology or human safety trials.

No harmful side effects were observed throughout preliminary studies on oral administration of C. esculenta root extract in normal and streptozotocin-diabetic rats.

Structural Revision and Its Implications

The data for the natural product reportedly isolated from Casearia esculenta do not match any of the isomeric 3-(hydroxymethyl)pentitols, and the structure has been corrected by reanalysis of the published data. This means that pharmacological studies conducted prior to 2013 may have attributed effects to a compound whose exact chemical identity was not fully established. Subsequent pharmacological interpretations should be read in light of this structural correction.

Fruit Capsule Toxicity

Although the capsule of some Casearia species (and possibly also the seeds contained therein) is somewhat toxic, the fleshy aril surrounding the seeds in C. esculenta is often eaten and considered edible. This differential toxicity between plant parts is a practical safety consideration in traditional food and medicinal use.

Absence of Clinical Trial Safety Data

Scientific validation for uses such as edema management is limited; there are only a handful of preclinical studies exploring the pharmacological activities of Casearia esculenta, and there are no robust clinical trials or comprehensive pharmacological investigations confirming its efficacy or safety in humans. The same limitation applies to all other proposed therapeutic areas—the totality of safety data remains within the domain of preclinical animal research, with no systematic human safety data available.

Potential Interactions

Because the principal documented pharmacological activity of C. esculenta and its isolated compound 3-HMX in animal models is blood glucose reduction via increased insulin secretion and inhibition of gluconeogenesis, theoretical pharmacodynamic interactions with hypoglycemic medications (e.g., sulfonylureas, insulin) must be considered. In preclinical studies, 3-HMX at 40 mg/kg produced similar effects on all biochemical parameters studied as glibenclamide, a standard antidiabetic drug. This pharmacological comparability in animal models suggests the possibility of additive hypoglycemic effects if used concurrently with antidiabetic pharmaceuticals, though this has not been formally studied in humans.

8. Evidence Limitations and Research Gaps

The entire body of pharmacological and clinical evidence for Casearia esculenta as of the time of this writing resides at the preclinical stage. All published intervention studies have used streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat models, with no transition to randomized controlled trials or formal Phase I/II clinical investigation. Key evidence gaps include:

• No controlled human clinical trials for any indication.
• No formal human pharmacokinetic studies.
• Structural revision of the principal bioactive compound (3-HMX) introduces uncertainty about early pharmacological data.
• No standardized extract specifications, manufacturing quality standards, or official pharmacopeial monographs (WHO, USP, European Pharmacopoeia) have been identified for this species.
• The evidence is primarily traditional, supported by ethnomedicinal documentation, rather than modern clinical science.

References

• Chandramohan G, Ignacimuthu S, Pugalendi KV. A novel compound from Casearia esculenta (Roxb.) root and its effect on carbohydrate metabolism in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;590(1–3):437–443. PubMed PMID: 18635165
• Prakasam A, Sethupathy S, Pugalendi KV. Antiperoxidative and antioxidant effects of Casearia esculenta root extract in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. PMC Free Article
• Prakasam A, Sethupathy S, Pugalendi KV. Effect of Casearia esculenta root extract on blood glucose and plasma antioxidant status in streptozotocin diabetic rats. Pol J Pharmacol. 2003;55(1):43–49. PubMed PMID: 12856825
• Prakasam A, Sethupathy S, Pugalendi KV. Influence of Casearia esculenta root extract on protein metabolism and marker enzymes in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Pol J Pharmacol. 2004;56(5):587–593. PubMed PMID: 15591647
• Prakasam A, Sethupathy S, Pugalendi KV. Modulating role of 'Saptarangi' (Casearia esculenta) on membrane bound ATPase in streptozotocin diabetic rats. Pharmazie. 2005;60(11):874–877. PubMed PMID: 16320953
• Wang R, Paddon-Row MN, Sherburn MS. Short synthesis of 3-(hydroxymethyl)xylitol and structure revision of the anti-diabetic natural product from Casearia esculenta. Org Lett. 2013;15(21):5610–5612. PubMed PMID: 24125121
• Xia L, Guo Q, Tu P, Chai X. The genus Casearia: a phytochemical and pharmacological overview. Phytochemistry Reviews. 2015;14(1):99–135. Springer Nature
• Chandramohan G, Ignacimuthu S, Pugalendi KV. A novel compound from Casearia esculenta (Roxb.) root and its effect on carbohydrate metabolism in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2008. ScienceDirect
• Prakasam A, Sethupathy S, Pugalendi KV. Hypolipidaemic effect of Casearia esculenta root extracts in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Pharmazie. 2003;58. Ingenta Connect
• Prakasam A, Sethupathy S, Pugalendi KV. Influence of Casearia esculenta root extract on glycoprotein components in streptozotocin diabetic rats. Pharmazie. 2005;60(3):229–232. ResearchGate
• Casearia esculenta: 1 definition. Wisdom Library
• Casearia esculenta Roxb. International Plant Names Index (IPNI)
• Casearia esculenta. Useful Tropical Plants Database
• Casearia esculenta. IMPPAT: Indian Medicinal Plants, Phytochemistry And Therapeutics
• Relationship: Edema and Casearia esculenta. Caring Sunshine
• Influence of 3-Hydroxymethyl Xylitol on Glycoprotein Components in Streptozotocin-Diabetic Rats. IOMC World Proceedings