Cosmos

Cosmos (Cosmos caudatus Kunth): A Comprehensive Reference

Identity and Botanical Classification

Scientific name: Cosmos caudatus Kunth. The genus name Cosmos is derived from the Greek word kosmos, meaning "order," "harmony," or "ornament," alluding to the symmetrical arrangement of the plant's ray florets, while the specific epithet caudatus derives from the Latin for "tailed," referencing its morphological features. The scientific name thus combines the Greek kosmos for "order" or "ornament" with the Latin caudatus for "tailed." The species belongs to the family Asteraceae (the daisy or sunflower family).

Cosmos caudatus is an annual plant in the genus Cosmos, bearing purple, pink, or white ray florets. It is native to Latin America — from Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil to Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico — and the West Indies, though naturalized in tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and Australia.

Botanical synonyms include Bidens caudatus (Kunth) Sch. Bip., Bidens berteriana Spreng., and Bidens carnea Heer.

Common Names: Kenikir or randa midang in Indonesia; cosmos, turay-turay, or onwad in the Philippines; daoruang-phama or khamhae in Thailand; and ulam raja, hulam raja, or pelampong in Malaysia. The Malaysian name "ulam raja" translates directly as "King's salad," reflecting the plant's reputation as highly nutritious and medicinally important and the traditional belief that it was served to Malay royalty.

Plant description: C. caudatus is classified as an annual to short-lived perennial aromatic herb that can grow up to 250 cm tall. The leaves are soft and pungent while the stem is light green with a purplish hue and succulent.

A related and also medicinally studied species is Cosmos sulphureus Cav. (sulfur cosmos, yellow cosmos, Klondike cosmos), a species native to Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, with its own distinct phytochemical and ethnomedicinal profile discussed separately below.

Common Forms and Preparations

The leaves and young tops of C. caudatus are eaten as a vegetable in Indonesia and Malaysia, usually raw but also cooked and mixed with coconut sauce and chillies. In Malay culture, the word "ulam" refers to certain plants found locally that are consumed as green salads, either on their own or seasoned with spices and fermented sauces and eaten with rice.

In supplementation research contexts, C. caudatus has been prepared as:

• Standardised encapsulated powder: The intervention group in one sarcopenia trial was designated to receive 500 mg/day of C. caudatus supplementation.
• Fresh leaf (whole plant food dose): In one randomised controlled trial, subjects consumed 15 g of C. caudatus daily for eight weeks.
• Aqueous extract: Used in multiple animal and in vitro experiments.
• Ethanolic extract: Used extensively in phytochemical and bioactivity assays.
• Herbal tea: Leaves are commonly used as fresh vegetables and in herbal tea drinks across Indonesia and Malaysia.

The distinctive aroma of C. caudatus leaves makes it suitable for consumption in fresh form or as simple preparations.

Historical and Traditional Use

Geographic Origin and Spread

Cosmos spp. are originally from tropical and subtropical regions including southern Mexico, Central America, or the Antilles. C. caudatus (Kunth) is one of the Cosmos species that was brought by the Spanish to Southeast Asia via the Philippines from Mexico. According to a comprehensive review, Spaniards took this plant to Asia via the Philippines, possibly because it was used by them as a vegetable during long sea voyages. From the Philippines, its cultivation spread throughout Southeast Asia, and it is now widely naturalized and cultivated across the region.

Traditional Uses in Southeast Asia

In Malay and Indonesian folk medicine, Cosmos caudatus, known locally as ulam raja, has been traditionally used to improve blood circulation, reduce fever and body heat, promote anti-aging effects, and treat infections. It is also applied topically to burns to prevent infection and internally to alleviate muscle spasms and strains.

In Malaysia it is used as a traditional medicine to purify the blood and to strengthen the bones. In the Philippines (Luzon) the leaves are reportedly used, mixed with rice, to prepare yeast.

In Southeast Asia, C. caudatus was used as a cover plant to mulch gardens and as green manure, in addition to being an essential oil producing plant. It was also used traditionally for burns due to its antimicrobial properties, and for strains and muscular spasms.

People of Malaysia and Indonesia believed that C. caudatus has antimicrobial characteristics, and thus used it for human and plant bacterial and fungal diseases.

It is also believed to have anti-aging properties, with its extracts traditionally used to prevent skin aging. Additionally, the essential oil extracted from the plant has been used to eliminate bad breath.

This plant is usually consumed as a salad and has been used to reduce blood glucose in East Java, Indonesia.

Traditional Uses of Cosmos sulphureus

Traditionally, C. sulphureus has been used in Mexican folk medicine for treating malaria, with roots or whole plant preparations employed to alleviate symptoms. The traditional medicinal applications in China of Cosmos extracts are shown to inhibit bacteria, fungi, and viruses and to have potent anti-inflammatory effects in laboratory animal experiments with induced gastric ulcer, liver inflammation, or arthritis-type swelling. In Indonesia, young shoots of the plant are consumed raw or cooked, often prepared as lalab or gudang, providing a mild, edible green similar to other leafy vegetables. In Thailand, the flowers are incorporated into salads for their vibrant color and subtle flavor, or brewed into herbal teas. The flowers are also a dye, producing an orange-yellow dye, used in pre-Columbian America and later in southern Africa to dye wool.

Key Phytochemical Constituents

Cosmos caudatus

C. caudatus has been reported as a rich source of bioactive compounds such as ascorbic acid, quercetin, and chlorogenic acid. Studies have shown that C. caudatus exhibits high anti-oxidant capacity and various medicinal properties.

Comprehensive phytochemical analyses have identified a broad array of compounds. The major identified active compounds include: quercetin, kaempferol, quercitrin, rutin, chlorogenic acid, stigmasterol, costunolide, lutein, α-copaene, bergamotene, and γ-muurolene.

Non-flavonoid compounds reported from C. caudatus leaves include phenolics, benzoic acid derivatives, cyclohexene-1-carboxylic acid, chlorogenic acid, α-linolenic acid, and ascorbic acid, as well as α-tocopherol, myo-inositol, α-D-glucopyranoside, 4,4'-bipyridine, diterpenoids, costunolide, stigmasterol, lycopene, and lutein. These active compounds were identified in the leaves by HPLC and HPLC-MS analyses.

More than twenty antioxidants were identified in ulam raja using HPLC/MS. The major antioxidants were attributed to a number of proanthocyanidins that existed as dimers through hexamers, quercetin glycosides, chlorogenic, neo-chlorogenic, crypto-chlorogenic acid and (+)-catechin.

Identification of phytochemical constituents in the C. caudatus extract was carried out by LC-DAD-ESIMS/MS technique. Six compounds were identified including quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside, quercetin 3-O-glucoside, rutin, quercetin 3-O-arabinofuranoside, quercetin 3-O-galactoside, and chlorogenic acid.

The leaves have been reported to contain several phytoconstituents such as flavonoids and their derivatives, other phenolics, and essential oil, while the roots contain only non-flavonoids.

Additionally, C. caudatus is rich in nutrients such as protein, fiber, vitamin C, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, beta-carotene, potassium, calcium, iron, and phosphorus.

Samples planted from June to August (during the dry season) exhibited remarkably higher bioactivity. The samples harvested at eight weeks of age during the dry season showed the highest bioactivity. This indicates that environmental and cultivation conditions significantly influence the phytochemical content of C. caudatus.

Cosmos sulphureus

The plant has yielded butein, known for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. Research has also confirmed the presence of carotenoid pigments responsible for its characteristically orange and yellow flowers, and pancreatic lipase-inhibiting compounds. Extracts from C. sulphureus flowers brewed as herbal teas have shown potential to inhibit pancreatic lipase activity (IC50: 4.82 mg/ml).

Mechanisms of Action

Antioxidant Activity

The high content of antioxidants in ulam raja could be partly responsible for its ability to reduce oxidative stress. Phenolic compounds and flavonoids, including the numerous quercetin glycosides, proanthocyanidin dimers through hexamers, and chlorogenic acid derivatives, are the primary contributors to this activity. Other studies show the content of phenolic compounds such as gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and coumaric acid, and phenolic compounds and flavonoids are known to have good antioxidant activity in preventing exposure to free radicals.

Antidiabetic Mechanisms

A primary proposed mechanism for the antidiabetic action of C. caudatus is inhibition of α-glucosidase, an intestinal enzyme responsible for carbohydrate breakdown. The use of α-glucosidase inhibitors is a therapeutic approach to reduce postprandial hyperglycaemia in diabetic patients. It works by retarding the absorption of carbohydrates and glucose. The α-glucosidase enzyme is located in the brush border membrane of the small intestine, and its function is to break down carbohydrates to form the more absorbable monosaccharides. α-Glucosidase inhibitors delay and reduce postprandial glucose and insulin levels.

The metabolites that correlated with high total phenolic content and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity were mainly rutin and quercetin derivatives. Previous reports have also shown that flavonoids have a significant correlation with the antidiabetic activity and antioxidant properties of many plants.

Quercetin and its derivatives are abundant flavonoids identified in the ethanol extract of C. caudatus, and prior research has demonstrated blood glucose-lowering effects of quercetin administration in animal models of diabetes mellitus.

Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

A study reported that 200 mg/kg of ulam raja extracts demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity by suppressing mice paw oedema induced by carrageenan. The result was comparable to the standard drug, diclofenac sodium (10 mg/kg). The mechanism of ulam raja to exert anti-inflammatory effects may be through reducing the synthesis of prostaglandins.

Antihypertensive Mechanisms

In vitro and animal studies have shown that C. caudatus extracts inhibit key enzymes involved in hypertension. Studies have investigated inhibitory potential against enzymes involved in hyperglycemia and hypertension, with C. caudatus demonstrating activity against both pathways. The flavonoids — particularly quercetin — present in C. caudatus are thought to underpin the antihypertensive activity observed in experimental models.

Bone-Protective Mechanisms

C. caudatus, a plant containing antioxidant compounds and minerals, may be used to treat and prevent osteoporosis. The bone-protective mechanism appears to involve both the antioxidant compounds (which counteract oxidative stress-related bone resorption) and the mineral content (particularly calcium) in the plant. Extract of C. caudatus increased double-labelled surface, mineral appositional rate, osteoid volume, and osteoblast surface, supporting its role in bone protection. It was also reported that supplementation of C. caudatus can prevent the increase of interleukin-1, pyridinoline, and bone resorption in ovariectomized rats.

Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

1. Glycemic Control and Type 2 Diabetes

In vitro and animal evidence: Multiple laboratory studies have established potent α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. The aqueous ethanolic extracts of five medicinal plant species including C. caudatus were assessed for glucose-lowering effect via an in vitro α-glucosidase inhibition assay and for antioxidant potential. The most potent α-glucosidase inhibitory activity was recorded for the leaf extract of C. caudatus with IC50 of 21.90 ± 3.60 µg/mL, while Momordica charantia, P. bleo, and A. bilimbi did not show any significant inhibition of α-glucosidase.

This plant can be suggested as a potential natural source of antioxidant and antidiabetic compounds for the prevention or treatment of diabetes and its complications. However, the use of this plant as an alternative remedy for diabetes requires more extensive studies, isolation of the bioactive compounds, and safety and efficacy evaluations on human subjects.

Human clinical evidence: In a randomised controlled trial with a two-arm parallel-group design, a total of 101 subjects with type 2 diabetes were randomly allocated to a diabetic-ulam group or diabetic controls for eight weeks. Subjects in the diabetic-ulam group consumed 15 g of C. caudatus daily for eight weeks. After 8 weeks of supplementation, C. caudatus significantly reduced serum insulin (−1.16 versus +3.91), reduced HOMA-IR (−1.09 versus +1.34), and increased QUICKI (+0.05 versus −0.03) in the diabetic-ulam group compared with controls.

The study indicated that supplementation with C. caudatus has a potential for the treatment of hyperlipidemia and showed a significant (P<0.05) reduction of plasma triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and glucose, and a significant increase in HDL cholesterol and Atherogenic Index values.

Evidence strength: There is one published human RCT supporting improvements in insulin resistance and glycemic markers. In vitro evidence of α-glucosidase inhibition is robust. Larger, longer trials are needed before clinical conclusions can be drawn.

2. Antihypertensive Effects

In vitro evidence: C. caudatus extracts have been studied for inhibition of key enzymes relevant to blood pressure regulation. Cosmos caudatus is an annual plant known for its medicinal value in treating several health conditions, such as high blood pressure, arthritis, and diabetes mellitus.

Animal evidence: An aqueous extract of C. caudatus has been shown to be effective in decreasing the heartbeat and amplitude of stroke volume induced by adrenaline in experimental models.

Evidence strength: Evidence remains largely in vitro and animal-based. No dedicated, high-quality human clinical trials specifically testing antihypertensive outcomes have been published as of the available literature.

3. Bone Health and Osteoporosis

Animal evidence: Several studies in ovariectomized rat models (representing postmenopausal bone loss) have examined C. caudatus. In a series of studies at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, thirty-two female rats, aged 3 months, were divided into 4 groups: sham operated, ovariectomized controls, ovariectomized treated with calcium 1% ad libitum, and ovariectomized force-fed with 500 mg/kg C. caudatus extract. Treatment was given six days per week for a period of eight weeks.

Ovariectomy decreased trabecular bone volume (BV/TV), decreased trabecular number (Tb.N), and increased trabecular separation (Tb.Sp). Both calcium 1% and 500 mg/kg C. caudatus had protective effects on these parameters.

A follow-up study on dynamic and cellular histomorphometry found that C. caudatus increased double-labeled surface (dLS/BS), mineral appositional rate (MAR), osteoid volume (OV/BV), and osteoblast surface (Ob.S/BS). C. caudatus also gave better results compared to calcium 1% in the osteoid volume (OV/BV) parameter.

In a follow-up study, C. caudatus extract (500 mg/kg) was found to enhance fracture healing in ovariectomized rats with fractured tibia.

Evidence strength: Evidence for bone-protective effects is exclusively from animal (rat) models. No human clinical trials focused on bone outcomes have been published in the available literature.

4. Antioxidant and Anti-aging Effects

The antioxidant properties of C. caudatus are among its most thoroughly characterised features in both laboratory and preliminary clinical settings. Recent studies have identified its high concentrations of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), quercetin, and chlorogenic acid, which contribute to its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These compounds not only neutralize free radicals and mitigate oxidative stress but also show promise in managing chronic conditions like diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

In the cognitive impairment trial discussed below, cosmos caudatus supplement potentially reduced lipid peroxidation using malondialdehyde biomarkers and increased serum glutathione level.

C. caudatus, rich in flavonoid glycosides, exhibits skin anti-aging effects through inhibiting collagenase, MMP-1, and MMP-3 activities, possibly via the NF-κB pathway.

Evidence strength: Antioxidant capacity is very well-established in vitro. Human biomarker data from small trials (e.g., MDA reduction) are promising but preliminary.

5. Cognition and Neuroprotection

Human clinical evidence: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial investigated the effects of 12 weeks of Cosmos caudatus supplement on cognitive function, mood status, blood biochemical profiles, and biomarkers among older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Subjects were randomized into a CC supplement (n = 24) and placebo group (n = 24), each consuming one capsule of CC supplement (250 mg of CC/capsule) or placebo (500 mg maltodextrin/capsule) twice daily for 12 weeks.

Two-way mixed ANOVA analysis showed significant improvements in mini mental state examination (MMSE) (partial η² = 0.150, p = 0.049), tension (partial η² = 0.191, p = 0.018), total mood disturbance (partial η² = 0.171, p = 0.028), and malondialdehyde (MDA) (partial η² = 0.097, p = 0.047) following CC supplementation.

In conclusion, 12 weeks CC supplementation potentially improved global cognition, tension, total mood disturbance, and oxidative stress among older adults with MCI. Larger sample size and longer period of intervention with incorporation of a metabolomic approach should be conducted to further investigate the underlying mechanism of CC supplementation in neuroprotection.

A 2025 network meta-analysis of botanical drugs for MCI found that Pycnogenol showed the highest probability of improving cognitive function and daily living scores in patients with MCI, while Cosmos caudatus supplementation ranked highest for psychological outcomes. Although these findings highlight potential benefits, heterogeneity among the included studies warrants cautious interpretation.

A separate systematic review reported that administration of Cosmos caudatus for 12 weeks led to significant enhancements in cognitive and mood-related outcomes, including MMSE scores, tension, mood disturbance, and malondialdehyde levels.

Evidence strength: There is one small, well-designed RCT (n=48) with positive outcomes for mood and global cognition in MCI patients. Results are promising but preliminary, with only a single trial of limited size. Replication in larger studies is needed.

6. Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity

In vitro evidence: C. caudatus methanolic extract is effective in inhibiting the growth of certain microorganisms, including E. coli and S. aureus. Ethanol and water extracts of Cosmos caudatus were tested for antimicrobial activities against pathogenic bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli using the agar well diffusion method.

Evidence strength: All antimicrobial evidence is in vitro. No human clinical studies on infectious outcomes have been conducted.

7. Lipid Profile (Hypolipidemic Effects)

Animal studies have shown hypolipidemic effects. Supplementation with C. caudatus showed a significant (P<0.05) reduction of plasma triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and glucose, and a significant increase in HDL cholesterol. These findings were from animal and limited human data in a combined diabetes trial; dedicated human trials for lipid outcomes alone have not been published in the available literature.

Evidence strength: Preliminary, based on animal models and data extracted from a diabetes-focused human RCT.

8. Cancer-Related (Cytotoxic) Research

Exploratory laboratory research has investigated C. caudatus against cancer cell lines. Its cytotoxic effects on cancer still lack empirical evidence. A study aimed to investigate antimicrobial and antioxidant potentials of Cosmos caudatus as well as its cytotoxic effects on cancer cell lines. Network pharmacology and molecular docking studies have computationally explored C. caudatus compounds as candidate lung cancer drug targets, but these remain preliminary computational investigations with no clinical application established.

Evidence strength: Highly preliminary; in vitro and computational only. No human clinical data.

Body Systems and Health Areas

• Endocrine / Metabolic: Blood glucose regulation, insulin sensitivity (HOMA-IR), lipid metabolism (triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL, HDL).
• Cardiovascular: Blood pressure modulation, blood circulation, cardiac effects in experimental models.
• Musculoskeletal: Bone formation, osteoblast activity, fracture healing, anti-osteoporotic effects.
• Neurological / Cognitive: Cognitive function (MMSE), mood, neuroprotection, oxidative stress biomarkers in MCI.
• Immune / Anti-infective: Antibacterial and antifungal activity (in vitro).
• Integumentary (skin): Anti-aging through MMP inhibition, antioxidant-based skin protection.
• Gastrointestinal: Anti-inflammatory effects on gastrointestinal tissues (animal models).

Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The following dosages are reported in specific published studies and are not recommendations:

• 15 g fresh leaf daily for 8 weeks in a human RCT of patients with type 2 diabetes (n=101).
• 500 mg daily (two capsules of 250 mg each) for 12 weeks in a human RCT of older adults with MCI (n=48).
• 500 mg/day of encapsulated C. caudatus extract used as the designated intervention dose in a protocol for a 12-week trial in older adults with sarcopenia (64 subjects).
• 500 mg/kg body weight aqueous extract by force-feeding in an ovariectomized rat model of osteoporosis for 8 weeks (animal study).
• 50 mg/kg, 500 mg/kg, and 2000 mg/kg doses used in a single-dose acute toxicity study in male rats.
• 100 mg/kg of aqueous extract used in an animal antioxidant study (mice), showing increases in superoxide dismutase and catalase levels after 21 days.

Safety Considerations and Toxicology

General Safety Profile

C. caudatus extracts can affect human health and are considered safe to be consumed at lower doses. However, it has been reported to demonstrate acute hepatotoxicity at higher doses.

The administration of a high dose of 2,000 mg/kg of aqueous extract has the potential to induce acute hepatotoxicity in male rats. This was observed in post-treatment data as a reduction in serum albumin levels.

In contrast, another toxicity study using a different extract type found that an acute and subacute toxicity study of the ethanolic extract of C. caudatus leaf in Sprague Dawley rats demonstrated that the plant gave the lowest toxicity effects and displayed a high safety margin, as experimental animals could tolerate up to 5,000 mg/kg body weight of the extract orally. This discrepancy may reflect differences between aqueous and ethanolic extraction methods.

The limitation of the toxicological evaluation of this herb is that it still needs to be tested using different in vitro assays and animal models. Moreover, the previously isolated active compounds from this plant should also be thoroughly evaluated for their pharmacological effects and toxicity to ensure safety for human consumption.

Human Clinical Trial Safety Data

The CC supplement reportedly had no harmful effects based on vital signs, liver function test, and renal profile, and no serious adverse events were reported after 12 weeks in the MCI trial.

Heavy metals and microbial analysis were conducted in the MCI trial and it was reported that the composition of heavy metals and microbial contaminants was below the toxicity level.

None of the studies reviewed in the scoping review showed any negative effect of C. caudatus related to medicinal use.

Herb–Drug Interactions

As of available published data, there is no established data on herb–drug interaction of C. caudatus. Interim safety analyses have been built into clinical trials to monitor safety of consuming C. caudatus throughout study periods.

Given that C. caudatus exhibits in vitro and animal evidence of blood glucose-lowering and antihypertensive activity, concurrent use with antidiabetic or antihypertensive medications warrants attention, although no formal human data on interactions exist in the published literature at this time.

Limitations of Existing Evidence Base

All reviewed studies demonstrated that C. caudatus is effective, having demonstrated its anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory, bone-protective, anti-microbial, and anti-fungal activity in both in vitro and animal studies. However, the scoping review that synthesised this evidence concluded that human clinical trials are warranted. The research and development of herbal remedies derived from C. caudatus to treat a variety of illnesses are still in their infancy. Additional in vitro and in vivo investigations are still needed to confirm various traditional claims about the therapeutic potential of this plant.

References

• Cheng S-H et al. (2015). Eight Weeks of Cosmos caudatus (Ulam Raja) Supplementation Improves Glycemic Status in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. PMC4680046.
• Cheng S-H et al. (2015). Potential medicinal benefits of Cosmos caudatus (Ulam Raja): A scoping review. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 20(10), 1000–1006.
• Moshawih S et al. (2023). A review on Cosmos caudatus as a potential medicinal plant based on pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities. International Journal of Food Properties.
• Mohamed N et al. (2012). The Effects of Cosmos caudatus on Structural Bone Histomorphometry in Ovariectomized Rats. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. PMC3424602.
• Mohamed N et al. (2013). The effects of Cosmos caudatus (ulam raja) on dynamic and cellular bone histomorphometry in ovariectomized rats. BMC Research Notes. PMC3702396.
• You YX et al. (2021). Effects of 12 Weeks Cosmos caudatus Supplement among Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized, Double-Blind and Placebo-Controlled Trial. Nutrients, 13(2), 434. PMC7912368.
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• Mediani A et al. (2019). Variation in the metabolites and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of Cosmos caudatus at different growth stages. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. PMC6727405.
• Cheng S-H et al. (2016). Effect of Cosmos caudatus (Ulam raja) supplementation in patients with type 2 diabetes: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies.
• Moshawih S et al. (2017). A Comprehensive Review on Cosmos caudatus (Ulam Raja): Pharmacology, Ethnopharmacology, and Phytochemistry. International Research Journal of Education and Sciences.
• Norazlina M et al. Acute Toxicity Study of Cosmos caudatus on Biochemical Parameters in Male Rats. ResearchGate.
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• Comparative efficacy and safety of botanical drugs for mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. PMC12665759.
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• Umar AH et al. (2025). Unveiling the Pharmacological Mechanism of Cosmos caudatus Compounds as Lung Cancer Drug Candidates. Research Square preprint.
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• International Food Research Journal. Evaluation of the α-glucosidase inhibitory and free radical scavenging activity of Cosmos caudatus.