Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.: A Comprehensive Reference Article
1. Identity and Botanical Overview
Taxonomic Classification
Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass) is a perennial grass distributed all over the world, and particularly native to the warm temperate and tropical regions. Its full accepted scientific name is Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., where "(L.)" acknowledges Linnaeus as the original author and "Pers." credits Christian Hendrik Persoon who reclassified it. It is a perennial grass belonging to the family Poaceae (formerly known as Graminae). Within the family, its taxonomic placement is: Kingdom Plantae; Order Poales; Family Poaceae; Genus Cynodon; Species C. dactylon.
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., belonging to the family Poaceae, is one of the ten fortunate plants in Ayurveda's 'Dasapushpam' and 'Navgaraha' groups.
Common Names and Vernacular Nomenclature
In English it is known as Bahama grass, Bermuda grass, Common couch, Devil's grass, Giant Bermuda grass, Green couch, Hariali grass, Indian couch, Plain couch, and Quick grass; in French: Chiendent pied-de-poule; in German: Bermudagras, Hundezahngras; in India: Dhub, Doob. Other Indian vernacular names include Durba (Bengali), Garikoihallu (Kanarese), Durva (Marathi), Durva or Haritali (Sanskrit), Arugampullu (Tamil), Garika gaddi (Telugu), and Dhubkhabbal (Punjabi).
Botanical Description and Distribution
Durva is a perennial, creeping grass forming dense mats up to 30 cm high. Its stems are slender and prostrate, giving off rhizomes that spread laterally. The leaf-blades are linear, 2–15 cm long, with a pointed tip. Tiny flowers appear in crowded clusters of 3–7 on slender spikes, typical of Poaceae.
The plant is probably native to East Africa, where it is widely distributed from sea level to 2,160 m altitude. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, and Australia. It has been naturalized and cultivated in many other parts of the world due to its adaptability and medicinal properties. The plant thrives in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, savannas, and disturbed areas such as roadsides and lawns.
Plant Parts Used and Common Preparations
Cynodon dactylon has a long history of use in systems of traditional medicine, especially in Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine. Different parts of the plant, including leaves, roots, and rhizomes, were used for their medicinal properties. In traditional medical systems and ethnomedical practices, Cynodon dactylon plays a significant role. It is used in the form of powder, paste, or juice to treat a wide range of ailments due to its extensive therapeutic properties. In Ayurveda, the fresh juice of leaves and dried powder of the whole plant is used most often. In homeopathic practice, it is prepared as a mother tincture or in low potencies (3x) for therapeutic use.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
Ayurvedic and Vedic Traditions (India)
Its medicinal value has been recognized since the pre-historic Vedic period. Records of Cynodon dactylon (Dhurva) date back over 2,000 years in classical Ayurveda texts like the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita. In these authoritative works, Dhurva is praised as a Rasayana (rejuvenative agent) that balances Pitta dosha and cools the blood. Ancient healers recommended a decoction of fresh grass juice for bleeding disorders, wounds, and urinary complaints.
Durva (Cynodon dactylon), commonly known as Bermuda grass, is a medicinally and culturally significant plant widely described in classical Ayurvedic texts. Possessing cold potency with bitter, astringent, and sweet tastes, it is traditionally used for managing conditions such as Kapha disorders, skin diseases, burning sensations, excessive thirst, and herpes.
There is a classical Sanskrit description (sloka) that reads: 'Doorvati hinasti visarpadeen rogan iti, hinsayam doorvyate hinsyate pashubhih iti doorva,' which means that C. dactylon relieves diseases such as visarpa (erysipelas).
Cynodon has a renowned position in Indian systems of medicine and many parts of the plants are assumed to have medicinal properties. A traditional use of Cynodon is for eye disorders and weak vision; the afflicted are advised to walk barefoot on dew drops spread over the Cynodon plant each morning. Farmers also traditionally apply crushed leaves to minor wounds as a styptic to stop bleeding, similar to how Tridax procumbens and Achyranthes aspera are used.
Cynodon dactylon has a rich history of use in traditional medicine systems, including Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani, where it is known by various vernacular names such as Durba, Arugu, and Garike.
Range of Traditional Therapeutic Indications
The plant has been long used in traditional medicines to treat various ailments such as anasarca, cancer, convulsions, cough, cramps, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, epilepsy, headache, hemorrhage, hypertension, hysteria, measles, rubella, snakebite, sores, stones, tumors, urogenital disorders, warts, and wounds. The aqueous fluid extract of the rhizome is used as an anti-inflammatory, diuretic, anti-emetic, and purifying agent, and also in dysentery. The plant is also traditionally used as an agent to control diabetes in India.
Cultural and Spiritual Significance
The sacred value of Durva is especially pronounced in Hinduism, where it is offered to Lord Ganesha as a symbol of auspiciousness and longevity. Its evergreen growth and ability to thrive under adverse conditions have made it a metaphor for endurance and vitality. Durva also holds deep spiritual value in Hindu culture, especially in worship rituals of Lord Ganesha, symbolizing purity, protection, renewal, and prosperity.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
Broad Phytochemical Profile
Flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, triterpenoids, steroids, saponins, tannins, resins, phytosterols, reducing sugars, carbohydrates, proteins, volatile oils, and fixed oils were all found in Cynodon dactylon according to phytochemical examination. Nutritional analysis showed that each 100 g (on a zero-moisture basis) contained 11.6 g protein, 2.1 g fat, 75.9 g total carbohydrate, 25.9 g fiber, 10.4 g ash, 530 mg Ca, 220 mg P, 112.0 mg Fe, 1,630 mg K, and 28 g beta-carotene equivalent.
Flavonoids
The leaves contain the flavone apigenin, luteolin, and their flavone glycosides: orientin (8-C-β-D-glycosyl luteolin), vitexin (8-C-β-D-glycosyl apigenin), iso-orientin (6-C-β-D-glycosyl luteolin), a flavonoid sulphate, and iso-vitexin (6-C-β-D-glycosyl apigenin). HPLC–ESI MS analysis has identified the presence of many flavonoids including apigenin, luteolin, 6-C-pentosyl-8-C-hexosyl apigenin, and 6-C-hexosyl-8-C-pentosyl luteolin.
Terpenoids, Sterols, and Other Organic Compounds
The organic compounds found in Cynodon dactylon include β-carotene, β-sitosterol, vitamin C, palmitic acid, arundoin, friedelin, triterpenoids, selenium, alkaloids like ergonovinine and ergonovine, syringic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, o-hydroxyphenyl acetic acid, cyanogenic glucoside (triglochinin), cyanogenic hyperoside, furfural alcohol, furfural, acetic acid, phenyl acetaldehyde, phytol, β-ionone, mono- and oligosaccharides, and lignin in the whole plant.
Flavonoids such as apigenin, luteolin, orientin, and vitexin, as well as carotenoids like beta-carotene, neoxanthin, and violaxanthin, have also been reported. Other phytoconstituents include phenolics, phytosterols, glycosides, saponins, and volatile oils.
The major constituents isolated from the extract of Cynodon species include tricosane, 1,2-propanediol, 3-benzyloxy-1,2-diacetyl, along with several other minor compounds.
Identified Mechanisms of Action
Antidiabetic mechanisms: Luteolin, apigenin, 6-C-pentosyl-8-C-hexosyl luteolin, and 6-C-hexosyl-8-C-pentosyl apigenin have been shown in an in silico docking study to interact with SGLT2 (sodium-glucose co-transporter-2), PPARγ (Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor), and GLUT-4 (glucose transporter-4). The compounds' interactions with the SGLT2 residues Asp 294 and Gln 295 are reportedly similar to those of the Phase III medication dapagliflozin. Flavonoids such as apigenin, luteolin, and their C-glycosides have been reported to exhibit glucose level reduction in diabetic patients; their mechanism of action has been ascribed to α-glucosidase inhibition and intestinal glucose transporter GLUT-2.
Antihypertensive mechanisms: The ability of secondary metabolites of Cynodon dactylon to serve as antagonists to the angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1) has been studied. Twenty-four compounds were identified from hydroalcoholic extract using GC-MS. Sixteen ligands showed effective binding with the target protein; diazoprogesterone, didodecyl phthalate, and 9,12-octadecadienoyl chloride were considered compounds that could bind with the active site of AT1. The authors concluded that the metabolites could serve as natural antagonists to AT1, potentially useful in treating diabetic retinopathy.
Anticonvulsant mechanism: The ethanol extract of aerial parts of Cynodon dactylon showed marked protection against convulsions induced by chemoconvulsive agents in mice. Catecholamine levels were significantly increased in the brains of extract-treated mice. The amount of GABA, most likely to be involved in seizure activity, was also significantly increased in mice brain after six weeks of treatment. Results revealed that the extract showed significant anticonvulsive property by altering the level of catecholamine and brain amino acids in mice.
Wound healing mechanisms: Phenolic acids and flavonoids present in C. dactylon support its wound healing property through anti-oxidative activity that promotes collagenesis.
4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
Note: The vast majority of pharmacological evidence for Cynodon dactylon comes from in vitro cell studies and in vivo animal models. Human clinical evidence is extremely limited, and where it exists, it is often in small trials or in combination products. Evidence strength is characterized accordingly throughout this section.
4.1 Antidiabetic and Hypoglycemic Activity
Since the aqueous extract of C. dactylon was found to have high antidiabetic potential, the ethanolic extract was studied in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. The dose of 500 mg/kg body weight was identified as the most effective, lowering blood glucose levels of normal rats by 42.12% and of diabetic rats by 43.42% during fasting blood glucose and glucose tolerance tests respectively. The STZ-induced diabetic rats treated daily with 500 mg/kg body weight for 2 weeks showed a significant reduction of 56.34% in fasting blood glucose level. Total cholesterol, LDL, and triglyceride levels were also decreased by 32.94%, 64.06%, and 48.46% respectively in severely diabetic rats, whereas HDL increased by 16.45%.
In normal rats, an aqueous extract of Cynodon dactylon significantly reduced blood sugar levels for up to six hours. A dose-dependent response was observed up to 500 mg/kg body weight. When the dosage was increased to 1,000 mg/kg body weight, the response reduced.
Strong antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and anticancer properties were shown by methanolic and aqueous extracts both in vitro and in vivo. In streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, hydroalcoholic extracts markedly decreased blood glucose and lipid levels.
Evidence strength: The antidiabetic evidence for C. dactylon is based entirely on animal (rodent) models and in silico studies. No controlled human clinical trials specifically evaluating C. dactylon as a standalone antidiabetic agent have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature at this time.
4.2 Hepatoprotective Activity
The hepatoprotective activity of aqueous extract of Cynodon dactylon at 200 mg/kg body weight and 400 mg/kg body weight was studied against paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats. Treatment of the animals with extract caused a significant reduction in the values of SGOT, SGPT, and ALP, nearly similar to the standard N-acetylcysteine. The hepatoprotective activity was further confirmed by histopathological examination of liver specimens of control and treated groups.
The role of ethanolic extract of Cynodon dactylon against hepatic complications in streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetic models was also investigated.
Evidence strength: Hepatoprotective evidence is preclinical (animal models only). No human trials have been published.
4.3 Kidney Stone (Urolithiasis) and Diuretic Activity
Cynodon dactylon is a medicinal plant with antioxidant and diuretic effects. Different preparations of various parts (roots, rhizomes, and different fractions) have been shown to be effective in reducing renal calculi. Despite the effectiveness of the plant for this purpose, the mechanism of action has not been fully investigated. Usage of the whole plant decoction is more common and simpler than using specific parts such as rhizomes or roots.
In a preclinical study, fifty male Wistar rats were randomly divided into five experimental groups. Four groups received ethylene glycol (1% v/v) in drinking water for 6 weeks. Three doses of Cynodon dactylon aqueous decoction (12.5, 50, and 200 mg/kg body weight) were added to the drinking water of treated groups. Compared to the ethylene glycol-treated group, the 200 mg/kg dose lowered stone incidents, decreased urine volume, increased FRAP/g Cr by 43%, and increased thiol content. A minimum dose of 200 mg/kg of C. dactylon reduced stone formation and simultaneously increased total antioxidant power of serum.
The most apparent beneficial effect of Cynodon extract was seen in kidney tissues, where reduced levels of CaOx deposition were noticed especially in medullary and papillary sections from treated rats. The researchers concluded that C. dactylon extract has a beneficial effect in preventing and eliminating CaOx deposition in kidneys.
A human randomized, double-blind controlled trial was conducted and published in 2022. This study included 96 patients with urolithiasis who were randomly allocated into three groups. The first group received the extract of D. biflorus seeds (1,600 mg), the second group received extract of C. dactylon rhizome (1,600 mg), and the third group received placebo for 21 days. This represents the most notable piece of human evidence for this indication, though limitations include the short treatment duration and combination context of the trial design.
Evidence strength: There is reasonable animal-model evidence and at least one small human RCT. However, the human evidence remains limited in scale and duration. Overall, the evidence is preliminary to moderate for the urolithiasis indication.
4.4 Antimicrobial and Antiviral Activity
The aqueous extract of Cynodon dactylon had antimicrobial activity against all test organisms, indicating broad-spectrum activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, while no clear zone was formed with methanol extract.
A luteolin- and apigenin-rich fraction obtained from the ethanolic extract of Cynodon dactylon was evaluated for cytotoxicity and anti-Chikungunya potential using Vero cells. The fraction exhibited potent viral inhibitory activity (about 98%) at a concentration of 50 µg/ml as observed by reduction in cytopathic effect, and the cytotoxic concentration of the fraction was found to be 250 µg/ml.
Evidence strength: Antimicrobial and antiviral evidence is in vitro only. No human clinical trials have been identified for infectious disease indications.
4.5 Anti-atherosclerotic and Lipid-lowering Activity
In one preclinical study, the anti-atherosclerotic property of ethanolic extract of C. dactylon was investigated in experimentally induced hypercholesterolemia in rats. Thirty-six male Wistar rats were allocated into six groups. The control group received a normal diet, a sham group received a high cholesterol diet (1.50% cholesterol and 24.00% fat), and other groups received a high cholesterol diet with ethanolic extract of C. dactylon at low (100 mg/kg), moderate (200 mg/kg), and maximum (400 mg/kg) doses via gavage. The last group received atorvastatin (10 mg/kg). The study period was six months. Parameters including total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL-C, and HDL-C were assessed.
Evidence strength: Evidence is preclinical (animal model). No human data are available for lipid-lowering or anti-atherosclerotic effects.
4.6 Wound Healing Activity
The plant is used as a hemostatic and wound healing agent from an ethnopharmacological point of view. Aqueous extract of the plant was prepared and phytochemical constituents were detected by HPLC analysis. Acute and dermatological toxicity studies were also performed. Pharmacological testing of a 15% ointment (w/w) of the extract was conducted on full-thickness punch wounds in Wistar rats and evaluated on parameters such as wound contraction size, tensile strength, tissue DNA, RNA, protein, hydroxyproline content, and histological examination. The research with aqueous extract of Cynodon dactylon explored its potential wound healing activity in animal models and subsequent feasibility in human subjects.
The present research with aqueous extract of Cynodon dactylon explores its potential wound healing activity in an animal model and subsequent feasibility in human subjects. Phenolic acids and flavonoids present in C. dactylon support its wound healing property through anti-oxidative activity that is responsible for collagenesis.
Evidence strength: Primarily preclinical, with some reference to human feasibility assessment. Rigorous human RCT data are not available.
4.7 Anticonvulsant / Central Nervous System Activity
The ethanol extract of aerial parts of Cynodon dactylon showed marked protection against convulsions induced by chemoconvulsive agents in mice. Catecholamine levels were significantly increased in the brains of extract-treated mice. The amount of GABA, most likely to be involved in seizure activity, was increased significantly in mice brain after six weeks of treatment. Results revealed that the extract showed a significant anticonvulsive property by altering the level of catecholamine and brain amino acids in mice.
Evidence strength: In vivo animal evidence only. No human clinical data available.
4.8 Antioxidant Activity
Both ethanolic extracts and water infusions of C. dactylon were tested for antioxidant activity in the ABTS radical cation decolorization assay. The results showed that the ethanolic extract of Cynodon dactylon demonstrated an IC50 of 78.62 µg/ml in the ABTS assay.
Evidence strength: In vitro evidence. No confirmatory human studies.
4.9 Anticancer Activity
At 10 mg/ml, the cytotoxicity inhibition percentage was determined to be 93.5%, 88.5%, and 79.2% for Cynodon dactylon extracts. These results were similar to the control drug cyclophosphamide, which demonstrated cytotoxicity of 96%, 92%, and 83%. The lowest effective concentration (IC50) of petroleum ether extract of Cynodon dactylon was found to be 0.156 to 0.625 mg/ml, and it was non-toxic to Vero cells but harmful to HEP-2, HELA, and MCF-7 cells.
Hep-2 cancer cells were found to be highly susceptible to the cytotoxicity of ethyl acetate fractions of C. dactylon.
Evidence strength: In vitro cytotoxicity data only. No human oncology trials have been conducted or identified.
4.10 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity
Traditionally, the whole Cynodon dactylon plant is used for treatment of painful and inflammatory conditions. Antiarthritic activity of Cynodon dactylon has been investigated, noting that it is traditionally used as a herb to treat fevers, skin diseases, and rheumatic affections. The ethanolic extract of C. dactylon was studied in experimental models.
Evidence strength: Preclinical data only. No published human trials for anti-inflammatory or analgesic indications.
5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Cynodon dactylon
Previous studies showed that Cynodon dactylon possesses activities covering the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, antidiabetic action, gastrointestinal system, antioxidant activity, immunological function, antiallergic properties, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, anticancer, dermatological, diuretic, protective, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, insecticidal, and repellent activities.
- Metabolic/Endocrine: Antidiabetic and hypoglycemic activity; lipid modulation (cholesterol and triglyceride reduction) in animal studies.
- Renal/Urinary: Traditionally used to treat urinary tract infection, calculi, and prostatitis. Diuretic properties of the rhizome aqueous extract are documented in both ethnobotanical records and animal studies.
- Hepatic: Hepatoprotective activity against chemically induced liver damage in rodent models.
- Dermatological/Wound: Hemostatic and wound healing uses documented historically and confirmed partially in animal studies.
- Central Nervous System: Anticonvulsant properties demonstrated in animal models via GABA and catecholamine modulation.
- Cardiovascular: Anti-atherosclerotic and hypolipidemic effects in animal models; AT1 receptor antagonism proposed in silico.
- Gastrointestinal: Anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic, and antidiarrheal properties attributed to the rhizome aqueous extract.
- Immunological: Immunomodulatory protein fractions have been investigated in animal studies.
- Antimicrobial/Antiviral: Broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria demonstrated in vitro; antiviral activity against Chikungunya virus reported in cell culture.
6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages
Dosages reported in the scientific literature are from preclinical or limited clinical studies and are not standardized therapeutic recommendations.
- Ethanolic extract (oral, rodent antidiabetic studies): Doses of 250, 500, and 750 mg/kg body weight were administered orally to normal and STZ-induced diabetic rats. The dose of 500 mg/kg body weight was identified as most effective.
- Aqueous extract (rodent antidiabetic): An aqueous extract of Cynodon dactylon significantly reduced blood sugar levels for up to six hours in normal rats. A dose-dependent response was observed up to 500 mg/kg body weight; at 1,000 mg/kg body weight, the response decreased.
- Aqueous decoction (rodent urolithiasis study): Three doses of Cynodon dactylon aqueous decoction (12.5, 50, and 200 mg/kg body weight) were added to drinking water of rat groups. A minimum dose of 200 mg/kg reduced stone formation.
- Rhizome extract (human urolithiasis RCT): A hydroalcoholic extract of C. dactylon rhizome was administered at 1,600 mg for 21 days in human subjects with urolithiasis.
- Hepatoprotective (rodent): Aqueous extract at 200 mg/kg body weight and 400 mg/kg body weight was studied against paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.
- Anti-atherosclerosis (rodent): Ethanolic extract of C. dactylon was administered at low (100 mg/kg), moderate (200 mg/kg), and maximum (400 mg/kg) doses via gavage to hypercholesterolemic rats.
- Topical wound healing (rodent): A 15% ointment (w/w) of aqueous extract was tested on full-thickness punch wounds in Wistar rats.
- Traditional preparations: In traditional medical systems, it is used in the form of powder, paste, or juice.
7. Safety Considerations and Interactions
Acute Toxicity
Regarding toxicity effects of C. dactylon, administration of plant extracts at doses of 200–800 mg/kg in mice showed no acute toxicity effects.
In one study assessing rasayana plants, all three plant infusions tested (up to 1 mg/ml) showed no toxic effects on the viability of the PC12 cell line as judged by MTT-test.
Allergenic Potential of Pollen
Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) is an important source of pollen allergens in many areas of the world, especially in tropical and subtropical climates. An allergen from Cynodon dactylon pollen, designated Cyn d I, has been purified and identified as the major allergenic component of pollen extract. In SDS-PAGE, Cyn d I is presented as a dominant 32 kDa band and a minor 29 kDa band, both binding IgE. The major allergen of Bermuda grass pollen has been identified as a protein with a molecular weight in the range of 30–34 kDa, binding IgE from sera of more than 76% of individuals allergic to Bermuda grass.
In a study of common allergens in Ambala, India, using intradermal tests in patients with asthma, allergic rhinitis, and eczema, 100 patients were assessed over an 8-year period with 197 allergens tested. Pollens (51%) were the major allergens, followed by foods (28.9%), insects (26.9%), fungi (12.6%), and dusts (6.7%). C. dactylon (5%) was among the species ranking fourth among pollen allergens.
A further study investigated whether growing conditions (rural vs. urban) might influence the nasal inflammatory response to C. dactylon among patients with allergic rhinitis. The urban extract provoked larger wheals, and more patients with rhinitis experienced a positive nasal challenge test than those administered the rural extract.
It is important to distinguish between the medicinal use of plant parts (leaves, stems, rhizomes) — for which no significant contact allergenicity has been reported in the reviewed literature — and the well-characterized allergenic properties of Bermuda grass pollen (Cyn d I), which represent a separate and well-documented clinical concern in respiratory allergy.
Alkaloid Toxicity and Other Reported Concerns
In certain ecological contexts, reports of alkaloid toxicity and allergenic potential of C. dactylon have been made. The plant contains alkaloids including ergonovine and ergonovinine, which in unrelated contexts are pharmacologically active compounds, though specific toxicological thresholds from C. dactylon preparations have not been identified in the available peer-reviewed literature at this time.
Drug Interactions
No formally documented pharmacokinetic drug interactions with medicinal preparations of C. dactylon have been identified in the peer-reviewed sources reviewed. The proposed AT1 receptor antagonism and SGLT2 interaction mechanisms (identified in silico) suggest that concurrent use with antihypertensive agents (particularly angiotensin II receptor blockers) or antidiabetic medications (particularly SGLT2 inhibitors) could theoretically produce additive effects, but this has not been confirmed in human pharmacology studies.
Evidence Gaps and Limitations
The overall scientific evidence base for Cynodon dactylon as a medicinal supplement is substantially preclinical. Available reviews place a strong emphasis on pharmacodynamic observations, extract types, and experimental design, and note that the majority of work has been conducted in rodent models and cell culture systems. The sole randomized controlled human trial identified pertains to urolithiasis. Standardization of extracts, dose-range confirmation in humans, long-term safety assessment, and pharmacokinetic profiling in humans remain largely unaddressed in the current literature.
References
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