IngredientsTaxonomic source: The elk (Cervus canadensis), also known as the wapiti, is the second largest species within the deer family, Cervidae, and one of the largest terrestrial mammals in its native range of North America and Central and East Asia. Elk were long believed to belong to a subspecies of the European red deer (Cervus elaphus), but evidence from mitochondrial DNA genetic studies beginning in 1998 shows that the two are distinct species. Until recently, elk and red deer were considered the same species; however, DNA research has indicated that they are different. As a consequence, much of the older scientific and commercial literature uses Cervus elaphus to refer to what is now classified as Cervus canadensis, and the two names continue to appear interchangeably across research studies and product labeling.
Common names and nomenclature: The supplement derived from pre-calcified elk antler is most commonly designated elk velvet antler (EVA) in the North American scientific literature. Velvet antler has been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which classifies many similar substances from a variety of species under the Chinese character name 鹿茸 (pinyin: lù róng) and the commercial name cornu cervi pantorichum. The term pantocrine (or pantocrin) refers specifically to a liquid extract prepared from velvet antler, a term that arose from Russian pharmaceutical research.
Other source species: Farmed North American elk or wapiti (Cervus canadensis) or the European red deer (Cervus elaphus) are the main sources of antler for commercial use, although other deer species and countries may also be the source of velvet antler for use in traditional Oriental medicine. Sika deer (Cervus nippon), red deer, and various other cervids are used throughout Asia, and products from these species are frequently grouped together under the general category of "velvet antler" in the literature.
The velvet stage: In parts of Asia, antlers and their velvet — a highly vascular skin that supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone — are used in traditional medicines. Typically, the antler is cut off near the base after it is about two-thirds of its potential full size, between 55 and 65 days of growth, before any significant calcification occurs. The procedure is generally done around June in the Northern Hemisphere and December in the Southern Hemisphere. In a research context, elk antlers used in studies have been harvested in late spring or early summer from live farmed elk raised in regions such as Saskatchewan, Canada, while they were still in their velvet stage.
In Asia, velvet antler is dried and sold as slices, or as a powder which may be boiled in water, usually with other herbs and ingredients, and consumed as a soup. A 16th-century medical text, Pen Ts'ao Kang Mu, lists several antler preparations including pills, tinctures, and ointments.
In modern commercial contexts, elk velvet antler is sold in a range of forms. In Western markets it is most commonly available as encapsulated powder, standardized extract capsules or tablets, liquid tinctures, and sublingual sprays. In the traditional commercial trade of Korea and China, whole stick antler velvet is divided into three sections based upon their supposed properties. Although there is an absence of uniform standardization, these sections are known as the wax piece (uppers or tips) and the blood piece (middles). The upper tip sections are generally considered the most biologically active fraction, containing higher concentrations of growth factors, while the lower sections have a higher mineral and calcified bone content.
Variability in species, harvesting stage, processing conditions, and extraction methods may substantially influence the concentration of bioactive constituents, thereby affecting safety and reproducibility.
The first documented evidence of the use of velvet antler as a health tonic was found on a silk scroll recovered from a Han Tomb in Hunan Province in China. The scroll has been precisely dated at 168 BC and contains a range of significant medical treatments and prescriptions using velvet antler. In traditional Chinese medicine, velvet antler has been used for over 2,000 years as a tonic, to improve bone health, to nourish the blood, reduce swelling, and to treat impotence.
The first Chinese materia medica, called the Divine Husbandman's Materia Medica or Shennong Bencao Jing, was the first of a series of encyclopedic books that systematically listed medicinal materials or drugs; this text also has a brief description of deer antler velvet. In the mid-16th century in China during the Ming Dynasty, deer farming became important in animal husbandry as a means to support TCM. The two common species used in the TCM system are sika deer and red deer, which are thought to be useful for treating yang deficiency syndromes.
In Chinese medicine, deer velvet has been used to treat impotence, female disorders, urinary problems, skin ailments, and knee weakness. It is also employed as a tonic in children with learning disabilities or insufficient growth. Koreans use antler velvet to treat anemia and impotence, and to stimulate the immune system, improve heart function, muscle tone, lung efficiency, and nerve function.
In both Chinese and Korean traditional usage, velvet antler is regarded as a promoter of health; in other words, it is considered a 'tonic'. Korean traditional medicine (hanbang) shares many of the same conceptual frameworks as TCM and has historically prized antler velvet as one of the highest-grade tonic substances, traditionally prepared as decoctions, wines, and formulated pills often combined with other medicinal herbs such as ginseng.
Later research on deer antler dates back to the 1980s in Russia. Hundreds of articles since have been published, including those documented by Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scientists. Russia developed the pharmaceutical extract pantocrine (pantocrin) from velvet antler, which was studied from the Soviet era onward as an adaptogenic preparation.
Deer antler velvet (DAV), harvested from the growing antlers of deer, is a biologically dynamic animal-derived material. DAV contains proteins, peptides, growth-associated factors, polysaccharides, amino acids, lipids, and minerals, which have been investigated across diverse experimental systems.
Major categories of bioactive components present in DAV include proteins and peptides, growth factors (IGF-1, EGF, TGF-β, FGFs), collagen and glycosaminoglycans, amino acids and minerals (essential and non-essential amino acids, Ca, P, Mg, Zn, Fe), lipids, phospholipids and gangliosides, and polysaccharides and other small bioactive molecules (nucleotides, sialic acid, vitamins). These extracts are reported to consist of collagen as a major protein, a pilose polypeptide of 68 amino acids, pantocrin, glycosaminoglycans (primarily chondroitin sulfate), and nerve growth factors, which may exert anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and regenerative activities.
Among the growth factors present, IGF-1 is particularly significant; it is a basic single-chain polypeptide composed of 70 amino acids, known for its powerful role in promoting cell proliferation, stimulating insulin secretion, and enhancing immune responses. Plasma levels of IGF-1 are significantly elevated during the velvet antler growing phase relative to other phases of pedicle and first antler development, and a strong positive correlation exists between antler growth rate and circulating concentrations of IGF-1. However, IGF-1 plays a role in regulating antler growth within the animal; whether exogenously consumed IGF-1 from velvet antler meaningfully raises serum IGF-1 in humans after oral ingestion is a separate and unresolved question addressed in the clinical evidence section below.
Chondroitin sulfate belongs to a family of heteropolysaccharides called glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Studies suggest that chondroitin sulfate present in velvet antler mediates anti-OA effects. Chondroitin sulfate from exogenous sources has well-documented biological plausibility in joint health contexts, as it is a native constituent of articular cartilage.
Though present in smaller quantities, lipids and phospholipids in DAV are biologically significant. They contribute to cell membrane integrity, energy metabolism, and neuroprotection. Gangliosides, which are sialic acid-containing glycosphingolipids, have been reported to support neural development, cognitive function, and anti-inflammatory responses.
Polysaccharides in DAV, including both neutral and acidic types, exhibit strong immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities, stimulating immune cell activity and reducing oxidative stress.
Minerals present are fundamental for bone development, enzymatic activity, redox balance, and general physiological homeostasis, reinforcing DAV's functional properties in both biomedical and nutraceutical contexts. A sample of velvet antlers from the Formosan sambar deer, which are native to Taiwan, was found to contain multiple enzymes with antioxidant properties. These included superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX).
These constituents collectively contribute to the regenerative, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and therapeutic properties of DAV. Several in vitro and animal studies have reported that DAV-derived peptides and polysaccharides reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, while increasing anti-inflammatory mediators including IL-10. Unlike most mammalian organs, deer antlers undergo complete cyclical regeneration, providing a rare physiological model for studying tissue growth, differentiation, angiogenesis, and mineralization. This biological uniqueness has motivated researchers to investigate whether the molecular signals driving rapid antler regeneration may be harnessed for therapeutic purposes in other tissues.
The overall state of human clinical evidence must be characterized at the outset. Although numerous studies report immunomodulatory, antioxidant, regenerative, neuroprotective, and musculoskeletal-related effects, the strength of evidence varies considerably, with the majority of data derived from in vitro and animal models and comparatively limited well-controlled human trials. The most comprehensive synthesis to date of randomized controlled trial (RCT) evidence concluded that two RCTs reported some positive effects of velvet antler supplements, but neither were convincing, while the remaining five RCTs found no effect of velvet antler supplements. Claims made for velvet antler supplements do not appear to be based upon rigorous research from human trials, although for osteoarthritis the findings may have some promise.
Two RCTs have specifically examined EVA in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The first was a dose-finding phase II trial. Forty patients with stage II rheumatoid arthritis were randomly assigned to one of four arms of ten patients each. One group received placebo, and the other three groups received 2, 4, or 6 capsules (215 mg) of elk velvet antler with appropriate placebos to total 6 capsules daily; all subjects continued to take their arthritis medications. At one month, there were no significant differences between groups in number of adverse events or health status. The greatest improvement was in the 6-capsule elk velvet antler group, the least was in the placebo group; however, differences were not statistically significant. It was concluded that elk velvet antler can be taken safely in conjunction with a number of rheumatoid arthritis medications and should be studied further to assess efficacy.
The second and larger RA trial was a definitive randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled study. Patients (N=168) were enrolled in a 6-month randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. The trial examined the effects of elk velvet antler on joint pain and swelling, patient/physician global assessment of disease activity, functional ability, quality of life, blood levels of C-reactive protein, and adverse events in persons with stage 2 to 3 rheumatoid arthritis experiencing residual symptoms after standard treatment. There were no significant differences between groups on any measures. The pattern of change of the measures across time points was essentially the same for both groups. Although some patients reported clinical improvements in their symptoms, there were no statistically significant differences between groups. Overall, elk velvet antler does not effectively manage residual symptoms in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.
Strength of evidence: Two RCTs of moderate methodological quality. The larger, adequately powered trial found no benefit. Evidence does not support use for rheumatoid arthritis.
The most relevant human-oriented osteoarthritis (OA) data in the peer-reviewed RCT pool involved a veterinary model (dogs with osteoarthrosis). A powder of quality elk velvet antler (QEVA) was evaluated on client-owned dogs with osteoarthrosis in a clinical, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Thirteen dogs received a placebo for 30 days and then QEVA for 60 days, while 25 other dogs received QEVA for 60 days. On placebo, the 13 dogs did not show significant improvement; however, their gait, their performances in daily life activities, and their vitality were significantly improved on QEVA, based on changes in values exceeding those observed when placebo was administered. The chondroitin sulfate present in velvet antler has been proposed as the mechanistic driver; studies suggest that chondroitin sulfate present in velvet antler mediates anti-OA effects.
Strength of evidence: Very limited in humans. One human OA RCT appeared in the literature but did not show definitive effects in the systematic review (Gilbey and Perezgonzalez 2012). The dog study shows promise for osteoarthrosis, but direct extrapolation to humans is not warranted. Evidence is preliminary.
Three RCTs examined velvet antler's effect on sporting performance and body composition and are summarized in the 2012 systematic review. One specific trial examined hormonal effects. Male (n=25) and female (n=21) rowers ingested either EVA (560 mg/d) or placebo during 10 weeks of training. VOâ‚‚max, 2000-m rowing time, and leg and bench press strength were determined before and after 5 and 10 weeks of training; serum hormone levels were measured prior to and 5 and 60 min after a simulated 2000-m rowing race. VOâ‚‚max and strength increased and 2000-m times decreased similarly with training. There was no significant difference between the EVA and PL group for any hormonal response. It appears that 10 weeks of EVA supplementation does not significantly improve rowing performance nor alter hormonal responses at rest or after acute exercise than training alone.
Among other claims, deer velvet is said to improve human sport/exercise performance, which has been tested and for which there is no evidence (Sleivert et al., 2003).
Strength of evidence: Three RCTs; all negative. No credible clinical evidence supports the use of EVA for enhancing athletic performance, maximal oxygen uptake, strength, or body composition.
IGF-1 is an anabolic molecule which appears to induce growth of the antlers themselves. Currently, there is no evidence that serum IGF-1 is increased following velvet antler ingestion; one study using 1.5 g of velvet antler for 11 weeks failed to increase serum IGF-1. One gram of velvet antler taken daily for 12 weeks in otherwise healthy adult men has failed to significantly alter serum luteinizing hormone (LH) or follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) more than placebo.
A notable food-safety concern arose from a published study that found the presence of a pharmaceutical protein, human IGF-1, was confirmed in four commercially available products sold as all-natural, nutritional supplements. This was an adulteration finding, not a natural constituent finding, but it highlights regulatory gaps in the supplement market. Reported incidents of the use of nutritional supplements containing deer antler velvet by athletes have increased significantly in recent years. The supplements have been reported to contain insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which is a banned substance included on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited list.
Strength of evidence: Available clinical trials do not demonstrate that oral velvet antler supplementation meaningfully raises endogenous testosterone, LH, FSH, or IGF-1. The anabolic hormone claims are not supported by RCT evidence.
One blinded study in 34 otherwise healthy men given 1 g powdered velvet antler daily for 12 weeks failed to exert any erectile benefit (measured by IIEF) and did not alter self-reported orgasm or sexual satisfaction. This study also failed to find any significant difference in aphrodisia as assessed by the BISF-W rating scale.
An older, uncontrolled study from the Russian literature reported improvement in psychogenic impotence in some subjects, but this small study lacked placebo controls and is of questionable value; injectable extracts were utilized.
Animal research has examined velvet antler polypeptides in aged male mice as a model of hypogonadism. Twenty-four-month-old male C57BL/6 mice with low serum testosterone levels were used as a late-onset hypogonadism (LOH) animal model, and these mice received velvet antler polypeptide (VAP) for 5 consecutive weeks by daily gavage at doses of 100, 200, or 300 mg/kg body weight per day. While this model showed effects on steroidogenic enzyme expression in Leydig cells, the data cannot be directly extrapolated to humans.
Strength of evidence: One negative RCT in humans; no credible clinical evidence supports an effect on male sexual function.
Elk velvet antler has been used in traditional Oriental medicine for centuries to promote general health; however, little evidence for its effect on bone development is available. An animal study investigated the effects of a diet containing 10% EVA on bone development. Mean body weights were higher in the EVA group at 4–8 weeks in males and at 5 weeks of age in females. The kidney indices were greater in EVA-supplemented male rats at 5 and 16 weeks of age, and the femoral length was increased in both males and females at 5 weeks, with several pQCT-measured parameters having increased in EVA males and females. The activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) increased in the EVA group while the content of calcium and phosphorus did not differ among groups.
Strength of evidence: Animal (rodent) data only. No human clinical trials specifically addressing bone mineral density or fracture risk in people have been conducted with EVA.
This is an active and emerging area of preclinical research. Recognizing the potential of velvet antler in the nervous system, as shown in numerous studies, research has been aimed at evaluating the neuroprotective effects of Sika Deer velvet antler peptide (VAP) in neurotoxin-induced Parkinson's disease models. Extract has been reported to protect against neuropathological conditions in brain cells and suppress oxidative stress and neuroinflammation — crucial for the initiation or progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Gangliosides, which are sialic acid-containing glycosphingolipids, have been reported to support neural development, cognitive function, and anti-inflammatory responses.
Strength of evidence: In vitro and animal models only. No human trials have demonstrated clinical benefit for any neurodegenerative disease or cognitive outcome.
Polysaccharides in DAV, including both neutral and acidic types, exhibit strong immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities, stimulating immune cell activity and reducing oxidative stress in preclinical systems. Several in vitro and animal studies have reported that DAV-derived peptides and polysaccharides reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, while increasing anti-inflammatory mediators including IL-10.
Strength of evidence: Preclinical only. No controlled human trials have established clinical immunomodulatory benefit.
The following dosages are reported as used in specific identified studies; they do not represent recommendations:
Toxicological assessments in animal models generally report low acute and subchronic toxicity following oral administration of DAV extracts. Rodent studies have shown minimal adverse effects on liver and kidney function, hematological parameters, and general behavior, even at relatively high doses. Specifically, toxicity studies of deer antler powder in rats have been conducted. A 2 g/kg dose did not result in mortality or adverse events on a short-term (14-day) basis. In a 90-day study in rats, a 1 g/kg/day regimen also resulted in no observable, important adverse effects with deer velvet versus control, except for a minor, but significant, difference in liver weight.
In the only published human RCT specifically designed to assess safety in children, three and two participants in the DAE and control groups, respectively, reported adverse drug reactions (ADRs). There was no significant difference in incidence between the two groups. ADRs were categorized into gastrointestinal and skin-related symptoms. No serious ADR was observed throughout the study. The research discovered that the DAE is safe in terms of ADRs and laboratory parameters under the conditions studied. Further studies are required to accumulate safety data about DAE dosage adjustment and potential interactions with other medicines.
Comprehensive long-term studies, including reproductive toxicity, carcinogenicity, and large-scale human safety trials, remain limited. While available preclinical data are reassuring, extrapolation to chronic human exposure requires caution.
Particular attention has been directed toward growth-associated factors such as IGF-1, given their established roles in cellular proliferation and endocrine regulation. Although conventional DAV supplementation has not been conclusively associated with oncogenic or endocrine adverse outcomes in humans, theoretical concerns arise from the presence of growth-promoting molecules. The systemic bioavailability of intact IGF-1 following oral ingestion remains uncertain.
A related regulatory concern is adulteration: the presence of a pharmaceutical protein, human IGF-1, was confirmed in four commercially available products sold as all-natural, nutritional supplements in a published 2013 study, indicating that some commercial products may be adulterated with recombinant hormone.
There is a lack of information in the scientific literature to support many of the claims made for deer velvet antler, and there is also a lack of information on potential toxicity. Areas of potential concern include drug residues, possible deleterious androgenic effects on fetuses and neonates, and allergic reactions.
A possible interaction of velvet antler with morphine has been reported. Velvet antler has inhibited the development of tolerance to repeated doses of morphine in mice. This is a preclinical finding, but it raises a theoretical concern for individuals receiving opioid analgesics.
The FDA has not reviewed deer velvet for safety and effectiveness. The safety and regulatory profile of deer antler velvet is a critical consideration for its application in nutraceutical, functional food, and biomedical contexts. Although DAV has been consumed historically in traditional medicinal systems, historical usage alone does not substitute for systematic toxicological and regulatory evaluation.
Reported incidents of the use of nutritional supplements containing deer antler velvet by athletes have increased significantly in recent years. The supplements have been reported to contain insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which is a banned substance included on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited list. Athletes subject to drug testing should be aware that commercially available velvet antler products have been found to contain prohibited substances, whether from natural sources or adulteration.
Health conditions that Elk antler may help support.
Body systems that Elk antler may help support.
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