Flueggea suffruticosa

Other Names

Acidoton flueggeoides (Müll.Arg.) KuntzeAcidoton ramiflorus (Aiton) Kuntzearching bushweedbushweedChenopodium suffruticosum Pall.Flueggea flueggeoides (Müll.Arg.) G.L.WebsterFlueggea japonica (Miq.) PaxFlueggea suffruticosa (Pall.) Baill.Flueggea trigonoclada (Ohwi) T.Kuros.Flueggea ussuriensis Pojarkovaflueggiafluguéa d'Orientfountain hardhackGeblera chinensis Rupr.Geblera suffruticosa (Pall.) Fisch. & C.A.Mey.Geblera sungariensis Rupr.hitotsuba-hagiPharnaceum suffruticosum Pall.Phyllanthus argyi H.Lév.Phyllanthus flueggeoides Müll.Arg.Phyllanthus fluggeoides Müll.Arg.Phyllanthus ramiflorus (Aiton) Pers.Phyllanthus trigonocladus OhwiSecurinega flueggeoides Müll.Arg.Securinega fluggeoides (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg.Securinega japonica Miq.Securinega microcarpa B.C.Ding & Y.WangSecurinega multiflora S.B.LiangSecurinega ramiflora (Aiton) Müll.Arg.securinega sous-frutescentSecurinega suffruticosa (Pall.) RehderSecurinega suffruticosa f. japonica Hurus.Securinega suffruticosa var. amamiensis Hurus.Securinega suffruticosa var. japonica (Miq.)suffrutescent securinegaXylophylla parviflora Bellardi ex CollaXylophylla ramiflora Aitonyī yè qiū一叶秋一叶萩叶底珠광대싸리

Synopsis

Flueggea suffruticosa: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Nomenclature

Flueggea suffruticosa is a species of flowering plant in the family Phyllanthaceae. It is a deciduous shrub that is native to East Asia. The plant's accepted botanical authority is Flueggea suffruticosa (Pallas) Baillon. It was long classified under the older name Securinega suffruticosa, which remains widely encountered in the pharmacological and clinical literature; this shrub was formerly known as Securinega suffruticosa. Additional historical synonyms include Geblera suffruticosa (Fisch. & C.A.Mey.) and Flueggea trigonoclada. The genus name honors the botanist Johannes Flüggé (1775–1816), who was a native of Hamburg, Germany, and the author of the famous monograph on Paspalum plants.

The plant is an upright, arching, deciduous shrub of the spurge family that typically grows to 6 feet tall and to 5 feet wide. It is native to forest margins and slopes in China, Russia (Siberia), Japan, Korea, and Mongolia. Alternate, ovate, yellow-green leaves (to 2½ inches long) turn an often attractive buttery yellow in fall. This shrub is dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants. Apetalous, axillary, greenish-white flowers (each to ¾ inch wide) bloom in mid-summer (July–August). Female flowers are single and male flowers are in clusters. Pollinated flowers on female plants are followed by dehiscent green fruit capsules which mature to brown in September–October before splitting open to explosively expel ripened seed.

In traditional Chinese medicine, the plant is known by the name yī yè qiū (Chinese: 一叶秋). Other common names in different languages include Hitotsuba-hagi in Japanese. It is cultivated as an herb in traditional Chinese medicine and is specifically grown for the medicinal properties of its roots, twigs, leaves, and fruits. Securinine is an alkaloid extracted and identified from Flueggea suffruticosa (Pall.) Baill., a shrub belonging to family Phyllanthaceae, whose branches, leaves, roots, and flowers can be used for medicinal purposes.

1.1 Common Preparations and Dosage Forms

A wide range of chemical compounds have been isolated from this plant, mainly alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and lipids. Preparations used historically and in pharmacological research include decoctions, alcoholic (ethanol) extracts, and isolated pure alkaloids. In pharmacological research and in its limited pharmaceutical history, the primary active compound securinine has been formulated as an injectable solution. Clinically, securinine has been used in China and Russia and has received approval for clinical use from the China National Medical Products Administration (NMPA). The drug has been clinically applied in the treatment of neurological conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Flueggea suffruticosa is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Its twigs and leaves are used for the treatment of lumbago, limb numbness, and indigestion. This shrub is considered to be one of the 50 fundamental herbs in Chinese herbalism, with the plant's leaves and flowers being medicinally used in the treatment of contusions, paralysis, and neurasthenia.

According to the review by Raj and Luczkiewicz (2008), the plant is one of the 50 basic medicinal plants in traditional Chinese phytotherapy and was used in the treatment of various ailments ranging from rheumatic disease, quadriplegia, paralysis following infectious disease, and impotence. Species such as Flueggea suffruticosa and Flueggea virosa have been used as traditional medicines in Southeast Asia and Africa for a long time for their good medicinal effects in treating rheumatoid arthritis, traumatic injury, and gastrointestinal disease.

F. suffruticosa (Pall.) Baill. is commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of inflammatory ailments such as rheumatism and lumbago. In Russia and the former Soviet Union, the plant's primary alkaloid securinine attracted special medical attention; in Russia, where it was initially isolated and used for its GABA antagonistic activity as a CNS stimulant, securinine was referred to as a drug in the 10th Russian Pharmacopoeia of 1968, although its drug registry later expired.

Securinine has been reported to have potent biological activity and is used in the treatment of neurological conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, poliomyelitis, and multiple sclerosis. Securinine was used as a medication in Russia and China and showed beneficial effects on diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and poliomyelitis.

The plant parts employed in traditional preparations vary by region and condition. Securinine is an alkaloid extracted and identified from Flueggea suffruticosa (Pall.) Baill., whose branches, leaves, roots, and flowers can all be used for medicinal purposes. The content of securinine is highest in the root bark but relatively low in the bud of F. suffruticosa.

3. Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Active Compounds

A wide range of chemical compounds have been isolated from Flueggea suffruticosa, mainly alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and lipids. From the pharmacological point of view, the most interesting group are the alkaloids, among which securinine is an indolizidine alkaloid containing a unique tricyclic structure.

3.1 Securinine — The Principal Alkaloid

Securinine was isolated in 1956 from Securinega suffruticosa (Pall.) Rehder. Studies have shown that it is the main alkaloid present in the roots of plants belonging to the genus Phyllanthus, Securinega, and Flueggea. Securinine, a unique indolizidine alkaloid combining four cycles, with "6-azobicyclo[3.2.1]octane" as a key structure fused with α,β-unsaturated-γ-lactone and a piperidine ring, has a broad spectrum of actions including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, neuroprotective, and antitumor effects, and has been previously used in medical practice.

The molecular structure of securinine consists of four rings, including three chiral centers. It has been suggested that securinine can be chemically synthesized from tyrosine and lysine. Securinine has the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and has become a clinical central nervous system drug. So far, more than 50 natural-origin derivatives of securinine have been isolated.

3.2 Additional Securinega-Class Alkaloids

Phytochemical investigation on the fruits of Flueggea suffruticosa resulted in the isolation of three new Securinega alkaloids — secu'amamine H, 15β-methoxy-14,15-dihydrosecurinine, and securinol E — as well as eight known ones. Their structures were elucidated by means of spectroscopic techniques (1D and 2D NMR, MS, UV, and IR). The absolute configurations of the new compounds were established by single-crystal X-ray diffraction and CD analyses. The related compound allosecurinine, a stereoisomer of securinine, is also present in the plant and has been studied for its pharmacological properties; in in vivo experiments, administration of securinine to mice at a dose of 20 mg kg⁻¹ led to severe convulsions. With the introduction of allomargaritarine at a dose of 20 mg kg⁻¹, no seizures were observed, indicating that this analogue does not have pro-convulsive activity, unlike securinine.

Additional alkaloids isolated from the roots of F. suffruticosa include the indolizidine-type compounds suffrutines A and B, a pair of novel E,E and Z,E isomeric indolizidine alkaloids isolated from the roots of F. suffruticosa.

3.3 Non-Alkaloid Constituents

The characteristic chemical constituents of the Flueggea genus are alkaloids and diterpenoids, which show antiviral, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitumor, antibacterial, antioxidant, and neuroprotective activities. Beyond the Securinega-class alkaloids, the comprehensive review by Raj and Łuczkiewicz (2008, Fitoterapia) documented the presence of flavonoids, tannins, and lipids throughout the plant. Other potential biological activities exhibited by securinine include antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, antimalarial, and antitoxoplasmic activity.

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 GABA_A Receptor Antagonism

The most thoroughly established mechanistic property of securinine, the plant's principal alkaloid, is its activity as a competitive antagonist at the GABA_A receptor. The initial securinine research focused on its central nervous system (CNS) activity. It is a selective antagonist of GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) receptors. It has been shown that securinine can be used in the treatment of neurological diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis.

Experiments were undertaken to determine the site of action of securinine and related convulsant indolizidines. All of these compounds induced tonic seizures in mice, with CD₅₀ values ranging from 11 to 87 mg/kg. The CD₅₀ for bicuculline was found to be 8 mg/kg. Equilibrium binding assays revealed that securinine and dihydrosecurinine inhibit [³H]GABA binding to rat brain membranes with an IC₅₀ of approximately 50 μM, which is some 7 times less potent than bicuculline. Allosecurinine and virosecurinine have IC₅₀ values greater than 1 mM. Both dihydrosecurinine and securinine inhibited GABA-stimulated benzodiazepine binding in rat brain membranes, though they were somewhat weaker than bicuculline in this respect. Other binding assays revealed that securinine and its analogs were inactive as inhibitors of bicuculline-insensitive GABA binding, benzodiazepine, cholinergic muscarinic, and β-adrenergic receptor binding.

Securinine has been described as a GABA competitive antagonist, with selective binding to the GABA_A subtype in the mammalian brain and spinal cord. It was found that diazepam, muscimol, and pentobarbital blocked securinine-induced convulsions in mice, while baclofen showed no protection up to the lethal dose. These effects suggested the GABA_A receptor could be the target of securinine's biological activity.

4.2 Anti-inflammatory and Neuroprotective Mechanisms

Securinine is considered as a promising anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective drug in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. It has been shown that securinine inhibits the activation of the inflammatory mediator and transcription factor NF-κB, as well as its activator ERK. In addition, it inhibits iNOS expression and NO production, both of which are also activated by NF-κB.

Securinine also showed a neuroprotective effect on primary dopaminergic neurons in an in vitro model of Parkinson's disease via the inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation. It also showed neuroprotective activity against amyloid-β, which is a crucial component of the amyloid plaques found in Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, securinine inhibits GABA-A receptors, decreases acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and suppresses amyloid-β (Aβ)-induced glial inflammatory responses in animal models of Alzheimer's disease, improving cognitive deficits.

4.3 Anticancer Mechanisms

The anticancer activity of securinine is mainly attributed to its ability to modulate several key signaling pathways, including PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Wnt, and JAK/STAT, which play crucial roles in cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, and metastasis.

Securinine induces G1 phase cell cycle arrest, upregulates expression of p53 and Bax, and downregulates expression of Bcl-2, PI3K, mTOR, and p70s6k in breast cancer cells and promyelocytic leukemia cells. Studies suggest that the mechanism of securinine-mediated differentiation involves limited DNA damage that leads to the activation of DNA damage signaling. As DNA damage signaling is intended as a protective response, it can lead to growth arrest or cell death depending upon the amount of damage and the specific cell type. As leukemia cells have a propensity to differentiate, these cells can undergo differentiation after limited DNA damage in addition to growth arrest. Securinine-mediated differentiation was found to be dependent upon ATM/ATR and Chk1, but independent of p53 and p21.

Securinine activates p38 MAPK, enhancing monocyte antibacterial activity in vitro. The compound's ability to modulate multiple oncogenic pathways simultaneously is considered a key feature of its potential as an anticancer scaffold.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Neurological Conditions: ALS, Poliomyelitis, and Multiple Sclerosis

The earliest and most established pharmacological application of securinine was in neurological disease, particularly in the Soviet Union and China. Securinine has been found to be active as a γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) receptor antagonist. Its activity as a GABA antagonist likely explains its reported clinical success in limited studies for the treatment of neurological conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), poliomyelitis, and multiple sclerosis.

Clinically, securinine has been used in China and Russia and has received approval for clinical use from the China National Medical Products Administration (NMPA). The drug has been clinically applied in the treatment of neurological conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis. In Russia, it was referred to as a drug in the 10th Russian Pharmacopoeia of 1968, although its drug registry later expired.

Evidence level: The clinical evidence for these neurological applications is limited. The studies from the Soviet and Chinese literature, cited throughout the pharmacological literature, represent early-era clinical applications with limited controls and methodological transparency by contemporary standards. No large, randomized controlled trials have been published in the indexed international literature evaluating securinine for ALS or multiple sclerosis. The prior clinical use is widely referenced but the underlying original clinical trial data have not been subjected to modern systematic review.

5.2 Oncology: Leukemia and Solid Tumors

Securinine has been identified as a leukemia differentiation-inducing agent. Securinine is a plant-derived alkaloid that has previously been used clinically as a therapeutic for primarily neurological related diseases. Securinine induces monocytic differentiation of a wide range of myeloid leukemia cell lines as well as primary leukemic patient samples. Securinine's clinical potential for AML can be seen from its ability to induce significant growth arrest in cell lines and patient samples as well as its activity in significantly impairing the growth of AML tumors in nude mice.

In addition, securinine can synergize with currently employed agents such as ATRA and decitabine to induce differentiation. This study revealed that securinine induces differentiation through the activation of DNA damage signaling.

In the last two decades, the antitumor activity of securinine has been extensively studied. It has been found that securinine stimulates apoptosis in p53 knockout colon cancer cells, as well as in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells, human promyelocytic leukemia cells HL-60, human promyelocytic leukemia cells K-562, HCT 116 and SW480 colon cancer cells, and HeLa cervical cancer cells. The study of the antitumor action of securinine revealed the multitarget nature of its action.

Securinine, a naturally occurring alkaloid derived from Securinega suffruticosa and other plant species, has historically been used primarily as a GABA_A receptor antagonist for neurological disorders. More recently, research has shifted to explore the anticancer potential of securinine, demonstrating significant efficacy in inhibiting the growth of various malignancies, including leukemia, breast cancer, and prostate cancer.

More recently, a 2025 study published in Frontiers in Oncology investigated securinine's effects in gastric cancer cells, demonstrating effects on cell cycle and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) regulation, and identifying iron-dependent cell death as a novel mechanism. These findings are entirely preclinical.

Evidence level: All anticancer evidence for securinine from F. suffruticosa is currently preclinical — encompassing in vitro cell line studies and mouse xenograft models. Though securinine has never been previously tested clinically as an anti-cancer agent, there is a single report that demonstrates that it can induce apoptosis at high doses in a leukemic cell line. No human clinical oncology trials have been published in indexed literature to date. The preclinical data, while mechanistically promising, cannot be extrapolated to clinical efficacy.

5.3 Neuroprotection: Parkinson's and Alzheimer's Disease

Securinine is considered as a promising anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective drug in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. The evidence rests entirely on cell-based and animal model studies. Securinine showed a neuroprotective effect on primary dopaminergic neurons in an in vitro model of Parkinson's disease via the inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation.

For Alzheimer's disease, neuroprotective activity against amyloid-β has been demonstrated, which is a crucial component of the amyloid plaques found in Alzheimer's disease. Securinine decreases AChE activity and suppresses amyloid-β-induced glial inflammatory responses in animal models of Alzheimer's disease, improving cognitive deficits.

Evidence level: In vitro and animal model data only. No human clinical trials on securinine or Flueggea suffruticosa preparations for Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease have been identified in the peer-reviewed indexed literature.

5.4 Immunomodulation and Antimicrobial Activity

Securinine has been reported to induce macrophage activation and therefore proposed as a potential therapeutic for infectious processes. Research has shown that securinine functions as a GABA_A receptor antagonist that enhances macrophage clearance of pathogens (Lubick et al., 2007, Journal of Leukocyte Biology). Securinine activates p38 MAPK, enhancing monocyte antibacterial activity in vitro. The compound also exhibits antimicrobial activity against Alternaria, Curvularia, and Helminthosporum.

Evidence level: Preclinical. In vitro and limited animal model data only.

5.5 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Flueggea suffruticosa is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been commonly used for the treatment of inflammatory ailments, including rheumatism and lumbago. Suffrutines A and B are a pair of novel E,E and Z,E isomeric indolizidine alkaloids isolated from the roots of F. suffruticosa. Their anti-inflammatory activity has been investigated. The aim of one study was to investigate the inhibitory effect on inflammatory mediators and possible mechanisms of suffrutines A and B in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 cells.

It has been shown that securinine inhibits the activation of the inflammatory mediator NF-κB, as well as its activator ERK. In addition, it inhibits iNOS expression and NO production, both of which are also activated by NF-κB.

Evidence level: Preclinical in vitro and cell-based evidence. Traditional anti-inflammatory use is well documented across multiple cultures, but controlled human clinical trials are absent from the literature.

5.6 Fertility and Reproductive Biology

A 2025/2026 study published in Nature Communications investigated intraovarian injection of securinine in an animal model, examining its effects on ovarian function. This represents an emerging and very preliminary area of research. All findings remain at the preclinical animal model stage.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Flueggea suffruticosa

Central Nervous System: Securinine has long been used to treat central nervous system diseases. The GABA_A receptor antagonism underpins historical use as a CNS stimulant and clinical applications for ALS, poliomyelitis, and multiple sclerosis.
Musculoskeletal System: In TCM, the twigs and leaves are used for the treatment of lumbago and limb numbness. Historical applications also include rheumatic disease and traumatic injury.
Gastrointestinal System: Indigestion is listed among the traditional indications.
Hematological/Oncological: Preclinical research has documented securinine's ability to induce differentiation in AML cell lines and to cause apoptosis in a range of solid tumor cell lines.
Immune System: In vitro studies have identified macrophage-activating and p38 MAPK-stimulating effects.
Neurological/Neuroprotective: Experimental models suggest neuroprotective properties relevant to Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease models.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The following dosages are cited directly from the scientific sources accessed and apply to securinine, the principal active alkaloid of Flueggea suffruticosa, as studied in preclinical and earlier clinical contexts. No standardized clinical dosing recommendations appear in any current major pharmacopoeia or regulatory body database for this plant as a dietary supplement.

In vivo animal (mouse) studies: Administration of securinine at 20 mg/kg once daily had no evident toxicities in nude mice, however a dose approximately two-fold higher was found to lead to seizures due to securinine's affinity for the GABA_A receptor. Therefore 20 mg/kg was the highest dose that could be safely utilized in these experiments.
In vitro AML differentiation study: Cells were treated with securinine at 15 mM or vehicle for up to 6 days and assessed for differentiation by NBT reduction.
Historical clinical use (injectable): The most commonly reported adverse events associated with securinine in clinical use are localized injection-site reactions, such as pain and swelling. Systemic adverse effects, including palpitations and headache, are observed less frequently.

No verified human clinical dose-finding data for oral administration of Flueggea suffruticosa as a dietary supplement were identified in the peer-reviewed literature consulted.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 Pro-convulsant Risk — The Central Safety Concern

The most significant and thoroughly documented safety issue with securinine is its dose-dependent pro-convulsant activity, which is a direct consequence of its primary mechanism of action. Securinine is an antagonist of GABA receptors and has been previously used as a neurostimulating agent in the treatment of various diseases, in particular amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. However, its undesirable side effect, the pro-convulsive action, is also associated with the effect on the same target.

Experiments confirmed that securinine and related convulsant indolizidines induced tonic seizures in mice, with CD₅₀ values ranging from 11 to 87 mg/kg. Pharmacological research into securinine derivatives has been substantially motivated by the desire to retain the compound's useful activities while eliminating this pro-convulsant liability. In mouse xenograft experiments, a dose approximately two-fold higher than 20 mg/kg was found to lead to seizures due to securinine's affinity for the GABA_A receptor.

Securinine has been described as a GABA competitive antagonist with selective binding to GABA_A in the mammalian brain and spinal cord. Diazepam, muscimol, and pentobarbital blocked securinine-induced convulsions in mice. Other research proved that GABA could antagonize convulsions induced by picrotoxin, but had no effect on those caused by securinine. Only the combination of GABA and diazepam inhibited securinine-induced seizure, but neither alone had any effect.

8.2 Clinical Adverse Effects (Pharmaceutical Use)

Based on the compound's use as an injectable pharmaceutical in China and Russia: The most commonly reported adverse events associated with securinine are localized injection-site reactions, such as pain and swelling. Systemic adverse effects, including palpitations and headache, are observed less frequently.

8.3 Interaction Potential with GABAergic Drugs

Given securinine's mechanism as a GABA_A receptor antagonist, pharmacologically relevant interactions are anticipated with any agent that modulates the GABAergic system. Benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and other agents that enhance GABA_A activity would be expected to directly antagonize securinine's CNS stimulant effects. Conversely, securinine could theoretically counteract the sedative and anticonvulsant effects of these drug classes, or lower the seizure threshold when combined with other CNS-stimulating agents. It was found that diazepam, muscimol, and pentobarbital blocked securinine-induced convulsions in mice. No formal drug interaction studies in humans were identified in the indexed literature reviewed.

8.4 Derivative Development to Mitigate Toxicity

Securinine, a unique indolizidine alkaloid combining four cycles, has a broad spectrum of actions including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, neuroprotective, and antitumor properties. It has several reactive centers, which are double bonds at positions 12–13 and 14–15, representing a challenging scaffold for the synthesis of biologically active compounds. It is highly likely that the activity of securinine will be significantly improved with new securinine analogues that do not exhibit dose-limiting seizure side effects.

8.5 Regulatory and Evidence Status as a Dietary Supplement

There is no scientific evidence that F. suffruticosa has any clinical effect [in its traditional roles]. People use Securinega suffruticosa for heartburn, bruising, back pain, multiple sclerosis, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support these uses. The plant is not listed in major dietary supplement monograph databases such as the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements, ESCOP monographs, or the German Commission E. Its use as a dietary supplement ingredient is not currently validated by recognized regulatory or scientific bodies.

9. Summary of Evidence Quality

Flueggea suffruticosa and its principal alkaloid securinine occupy an unusual position: the compound has documented clinical history in Russia and China as an injectable CNS drug (primarily for ALS and related neurological conditions), giving it more documented human exposure than most botanical supplement ingredients. However, this clinical history predates modern clinical trial methodology. The preclinical evidence base — particularly for anticancer properties — is substantial and mechanistically coherent, spanning numerous cancer cell lines, animal xenograft models, and multiple identified signaling pathway targets. Nevertheless:

No published randomized, controlled clinical trials appear in the modern indexed literature for any therapeutic application of Flueggea suffruticosa extracts or securinine as a supplement.
The prior clinical use of securinine (injectable form) in ALS, MS, and poliomyelitis was documented in limited, older-era studies from Russia and China; these do not meet contemporary standards of evidence.
All anticancer, anti-neurodegeneration, and immunomodulatory evidence is currently preclinical (in vitro and animal).
The compound's documented pro-convulsant mechanism at supratherapeutic doses represents a genuine and well-characterized pharmacological risk that warrants serious attention in any future clinical development.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Flueggea suffruticosa may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Flueggea suffruticosa may help support.

No body systems available.