Galangal

Galangal (Alpinia galanga and Related Species)

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Nomenclature, and Common Forms

1.1 Botanical Names and Taxonomy

One of the most commercially significant species is Alpinia galanga (Linn.) Willd., commonly called greater galangal, a member of the family Zingiberaceae. This species is also known as galangal, greater galangal, or Siamese ginger. A second important species, Alpinia officinarum Hance, is known as lesser galangal and is historically associated with Traditional Chinese Medicine. A third related plant, Kaempferia galanga L., is also sometimes referred to under the galangal common name, though it is botanically distinct and possesses its own phytochemical profile. The genus name Alpinia was given by Plumier after Prospero Alpino, a famous Italian botanist of the early seventeenth century. The word "galangal" is derived from the Arabic Khalanjan, perhaps a perversion of a Chinese word meaning "mild ginger."

The plant Alpinia galanga (L.), family Zingiberaceae, commonly known as Greater Galangal or Java Galangal, is cultivated and grows wild in Asia. It is rhizomatic, 1.8–2.1 m in height with oblong glabrous leaves and greenish-white flowers, with fruits that are orange-red capsules. The plant is also known under the name Languas galanga, especially in Thailand. It is widely cultivated in tropical Asia, particularly in India, Thailand, and Indonesia, and is locally known as "Kulanjan" in Ayurveda and "Thai ginger" in Southeast Asian cuisines.

The drug has been known in Europe for seven centuries longer than its botanical origin; the species Alpinia officinarum was only recognized in 1870, when specimens were examined that had been found near Tung-sai in the extreme south of China. That species was named Alpinia officinarum as the source of lesser galangal, while greater galangal is a native of Java.

1.2 Plant Part Used and Common Preparations

The rhizome, which is aromatic and rich in bioactive compounds, has been used both as a spice and as a household remedy. Galangal rhizomes are harvested all year and used in Asian cuisine because of their spicy flavor. Common forms and preparations include fresh or dried whole rhizome, powdered root, essential oil (obtained by steam distillation), standardized aqueous or ethanolic extracts, capsules, and topical formulations. The volatile oil of Alpinia galanga can be obtained by steam distillation of the rhizome.

This spice plays an important role in the cuisines of South East Asian countries and of Indonesia. Similarly to ginger and turmeric, galangal can be eaten fresh or cooked and is a popular addition to many Chinese, Indonesian, Malaysian, and Thai dishes.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine

Galangal's documented use in traditional medicine stretches back well over a thousand years. In Chinese medicine, it appears in texts from the Tang Dynasty and is used to warm the stomach, dispel cold, and relieve pain. The lesser galangal (A. officinarum) was a standard herb in the traditional Chinese pharmacopeia for stomach pain, nausea, hiccups, and digestive weakness. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, lesser galangal (A. officinarum) is used to treat conditions associated with "Cold in the Middle Burner," with symptoms such as abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and chronic inflammation in the digestive tract caused by Cold. Both A. galanga and A. officinarum were well-known traditional Chinese medicines and were widely used as a remedy for gastrointestinal diseases such as dyspepsia, gastrofrigid, stomach ache, and vomiting.

2.2 Ayurvedic and Indian Traditional Medicine

Galangal is a very important medicinal plant used widely in traditional medicines of many countries, especially in the Ayurvedic system of medicine prevalent in India. In Ayurvedic medicine, galangal is known as kulanjan and is used to treat respiratory disorders, indigestion, arthritis, and fever. It is classified as having hot, dry qualities and is indicated for conditions associated with excess cold or moisture. Alpinia galanga has been used for its emmenagogue, aphrodisiac, abortifacient, carminative, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory qualities, and in the treatment of various diseases such as bronchitis, heart diseases, chronic enteritis, renal calculus, diabetes, rheumatism, and kidney disorders. Greater galangal features prominently in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine, where Ayurveda considers it a Vata Shamana drug, meaning it helps pacify the Vata dosha, which is associated with movement and the nervous system.

2.3 Southeast Asian and Indonesian Use

Beyond its food uses, galangal has been utilized for centuries in traditional medicine in several countries. In Ayurveda, Unani, Chinese, and Thai folk medicine it is applied in the treatment of diarrhea and stomach-ache due to its carminative, stomachic, antispasmodic, and antimicrobial properties. There are also reports about its traditional use to treat hemorrhoids, abnormal menstruation, and abdominal discomfort. The rhizome has been used for thousands of years in South-East Asia as a spice, while it is also of great importance in traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases including microbial infections, rheumatic pains, dyspepsia, diabetes, eczema, ulcers, and other dermatological disorders.

2.4 Arab and European Traditions

Galangal was brought to England and northern Europe in the 13th century by the crusaders, where it became a popular spice and medicine. St. Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179 CE) recommended the herb as "the spice for life" and used it in many of her formulas. The herb also has a long history in Arabic medicine for its healing properties.

3. Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Chemical Profile

3.1 Overview of Chemical Diversity

To date, more than 100 compounds have been reported in the plant. The phytochemical profile of Alpinia galanga is diverse, encompassing both primary and secondary metabolites that contribute to its pharmacological significance. The plant is particularly rich in flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds, and essential oils, many of which serve as chemical markers for quality control and therapeutic evaluation. Previous phytochemical investigations have shown that A. galanga and A. officinarum share some similar chemical constituents, such as diarylheptanoids, flavonoids, volatile oil, terpenes, phenylpropanoids, and glycosides, but their main chemical components differ. A. galanga is rich in a variety of phenolic compounds and essential oils, whereas A. officinarum is rich in flavonoids and diarylheptanoids.

3.2 Flavonoids and Polyphenols

Among its major bioactive constituents, galangin, kaempferol, alpinin, and 1′-acetoxychavicol acetate have been widely reported for their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties, while zerumbone represents another notable metabolite with chemopreventive potential. In recent years, compounds such as gallic acid glycoside, galangoisoflavonoid, β-sitosterol, galangin, alpinin, zerumbone, and kampferide have been isolated from various parts of A. galanga. Galangin is among the best-characterized flavonoids from galangal. Galangin, a main active ingredient extracted from galangal, has revealed various biological effects, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-obesogenic, and antioxidant properties.

3.3 Phenylpropanoids

The two main phenylpropanoid constituents of the rhizome are 1′S-1′-acetoxychavicol acetate (ACA) and 1′S-1′-acetoxyeugenol acetate (AEA), which have been reported to possess various biological activities. The quantitatively dominating aromatic compound is 1′-acetoxychavicol acetate, with other aromatic constituents including 1′-acetoxyeugenol acetate, trans-p-coumaryl diacetate, coniferyl diacetate, 1′-hydroxychavicol acetate, 1′-hydroxychavicol, p-hydroxy-trans-cinnamaldehyde, p-methoxy-trans-cinnamylalcohol, and 3,4-dimethoxy-trans-cinnamylalcohol.

3.4 Terpenoids and Volatile Oil

The volatile oil of Alpinia galanga consists primarily of terpenoids, with 1,8-cineol as the most abundant compound. Other major terpenoids include α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, α-terpineol, terpene-4-ol, and trans-β-farnesene. Additional compounds extracted from the plant include 1′S-1′-acetoxychavicol acetate, 1′S-1′-acetoxyeuginol acetate, 1,8-cineol, α-fenchyl acetate, β-farnesene, β-bisabolene, α-bergamotene, β-pinene, β-sitosterol diglucoside (AG-7), and β-sitsteryl arabinoside (AG-8).

In one study, 39 components were identified in the essential oil of the galangal extract, representing about 100% of the total volatile oils. The major components were beta-sesquiphellandrene (17.25%), beta-bisabolene (13.95%), and beta-caryophyllene (7.27%).

3.5 Other Compounds

The plant was reported to contain, among other components, essential oils, tannins, phenol, glycosides, monoterpenes, and carbohydrates. The root also contains resin, galangol, and starch; the active principles are the volatile oil and the acrid resin.

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

Studies in animal models reveal that Alpinia plants contributed as exogenous antioxidants, reduced proinflammatory cytokines, inhibited proinflammatory enzymes, improved gastric acid and gastrointestinal motility, and promoted ulcer healing. The terpenoids, flavonoids (such as kaempferol, quercetin, and galangin), and diarylheptanoids obtained from the rhizomes may play important roles in these anti-inflammatory activities. Both ACA and galangin found in Alpinia sp. protect human dermal fibroblasts from senescence by inhibiting NF-κB activation, decreasing the expression of inflammatory factors, and upregulating IGF1R/Akt-related proteins.

4.2 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Phytochemical compounds such as flavonoids and phenols have been documented to have powerful antioxidant effects, capable of scavenging free radicals and preventing oxidative damage. Rhizome extracts of Alpinia galanga have high phenolic and flavonoid content compared to leaf extract, and because of this elevated phenolic and flavonoid content there is noticeable antimicrobial as well as radical scavenging potential.

4.3 Antidiabetic Mechanisms (Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibition)

Galangin, a flavonol obtained from the rhizome of the edible herb Alpinia galanga, reversibly inhibits α-glucosidase activity via a monophasic kinetic process. It provokes a conformational change of α-glucosidase by generating an α-glucosidase–galangin complex, interacting with the amino acid residues located within the active site, thereby preventing entry of the actual substrate and decreasing the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme. The carbohydrate-hydrolysing enzyme α-glucosidase, when competitively inhibited, results in delayed glucose absorption in the small intestine, ultimately controlling postprandial hyperglycemia.

4.4 Anticancer Mechanisms (In Vitro)

Galangal mainly contains flavonoids, volatile oil, and diarylheptane compounds, which are found to have antioxidant, hypoglycemic, antibacterial, and anti-ulcer effects, as well as certain anti-cancer effects. Researchers have found that galangin can induce tumor cell apoptosis, promote tumor cell autophagy, and inhibit tumor cell metastasis. The ethanolic extract of A. galanga had a cytotoxic effect because it contained antioxidant polyphenols that inhibited cell proliferation by stopping the cell cycle. Although the active ingredients of galangal possess antioxidant properties, they also increase intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) that appear to interfere with molecular tumorigenesis. It is therefore important to understand the underlying physiological mechanisms of this herb in order to understand how it inhibits cancer cells.

4.5 CNS and Neuroprotective Mechanisms

Greater galangal has been used for thousands of years as a spice as well as in traditional medicine. Its central nervous system (CNS) stimulant activity and neuroprotective effects have been proved both in animal models and in human trials. Galangal has stimulating effects on the CNS, as shown by improved mice performance on the rotarod and actophotometer tests. Molecular docking studies have further provided potential mechanisms involving dopaminergic modulation and acetylcholinesterase inhibition, both of which are relevant to cognitive enhancement. Several studies have confirmed that A. officinarum exerts neuroprotective effects by reducing oxidative stress and cell apoptosis, promoting neurite outgrowth, and modulating neurotransmitter levels and signalling pathways. A decrease in acetylcholinesterase and monoamine oxidase enzyme activity was observed in the amnesia mouse model and in an in vitro study.

4.6 Antimicrobial Mechanisms

Activity against a number of pathogenic bacteria has been shown in vitro for whole plant and crude rhizome extracts, as well as for galangin and kaempferide. Synergistic effects with antibiotics against resistant bacteria have also been demonstrated in vitro. Galangal has also been studied for its inhibition of a wide range of human pathogenic fungi, zoonotic dermatophytes, and yeast-like Candida albicans. The ethanolic extract possesses fungicidal activity against Trichophyton longifusus.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Cognitive Function, Mental Alertness, and Fatigue

This is the area with the strongest available human clinical evidence for galangal as a standardized extract. Several randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials have been conducted using a proprietary aqueous extract of A. galanga rhizome (marketed as EnXtra®).

Alpinia galanga Extract (AGE) has been shown to increase mental alertness in clinical settings. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study evaluating the acute effects of AGE on mental alertness, accuracy, and fatigue, sixty-two adults were randomized to receive either 300 mg of AGE or placebo 30 minutes after lunch on Day 1, followed by cross-over treatments on Day 7. The study reported a significant decrease (p<0.05) in daytime sleepiness as measured by the Epworth Sleepiness Scale at 1-, 2-, and 5-hour post-dose from baseline in the AGE group compared to placebo, as well as measures of increased accuracy and attention. These measures of mental energy were further corroborated by reduced fatigue and increased feelings of vigor and energy in the subjects taking AGE.

CNS Vital Signs tests were used for assessment of neurocognitive functions such as processing speed (SDC), executive function (SAT), reaction time (ST), and alertness (ARS). Statistically significant (p<0.05) outcomes were observed for some primary efficacy endpoints, such as increased correct responses (SDC test), decreased errors (SAT), shorter simple and complex reaction time (ST), and increased alertness rating score for the AGE group as compared to placebo on day 28.

Improvements in fatigue scores were also observed with A. galanga extract alone and in combination with caffeine, with statistically significant reductions compared with placebo at certain time points. Trends toward improvements in psychomotor performance and sustained attention were observed with A. galanga extract, although these changes were not consistently statistically significant. In the sub-acute phase, caffeine showed improvements in alertness and fatigue primarily at 1 hour post-dose, with limited effects at later time points.

Evidence strength: Moderate. Multiple small-to-moderate-sized randomized controlled trials in healthy human subjects using a single standardized extract (300 mg) show consistent effects on alertness, fatigue, and attention. However, most trials are short-term, conducted in healthy populations, involve a proprietary extract of one manufacturer, and require independent replication.

5.2 Gastrointestinal Health

Galangal has been used in traditional medicine in many nations for centuries in addition to its culinary uses. Because of its antispasmodic, stomachic, carminative, and antibacterial characteristics, it is used in Siddha, Ayurveda, Unani, Chinese, and Thai traditional medicine to treat stomach complaints. Preclinical evidence supports gastroprotective activity. A study conducted by Johnley et al. (2020) reports that Alpinia galanga rhizome extract reduces the ulceration index and lesions in the gastric wall of Wistar rats that had been induced by indomethacin as a trigger for gastric ulcers. Research conducted by Matsuda et al. (2003) showed that acetone extract of Alpinia galanga rhizome has the ability to reduce the occurrence of lesions on the gastric wall, which was reported as more potent than some synthetic anti-ulcer drugs such as cimetidine and omeprazole in the animal model used.

Evidence strength: Weak-to-preliminary for humans. The bulk of gastroprotective evidence is from rodent models only; controlled human clinical trials specifically for GI endpoints with galangal monotherapy are lacking. Traditional use across multiple cultures is consistent with a carminative and gastroprotective effect.

5.3 Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Of approximately 248 members of the genus Alpinia, the most commonly studied for anti-inflammatory activities are A. galanga, A. officinarum, A. zerumbet, and A. oxyphylla. Only A. galanga, A. officinarum, and A. zerumbet have been studied in humans. Three drugs (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Alpinia galanga, and Withania somnifera), which are frequently used in Unani medicine for joint disorders, were selected in one study to evaluate anti-inflammatory activity. RAW 264.7 macrophage cells were used to examine expression of inflammatory markers IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. The 2024 PMC review of Alpinia anti-inflammatory studies identified human data for A. galanga, but noted that the majority of evidence for anti-inflammatory mechanisms remains in vitro and in animal models.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (in vitro and animal) evidence is consistent and compelling. Human clinical evidence specifically targeting inflammatory biomarkers with A. galanga alone is limited.

5.4 Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity

A. galanga and A. officinarum have been found to have many biological activities including effectiveness as antiinflammatory, antitumor, antiviral, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiallergic, and gastroprotective agents. In vitro studies have tested the essential oil and various rhizome extracts against a range of pathogens. In one published study, A. galanga rhizome extract exhibited considerable antimicrobial activity against all bacterial strains tested, with MIC values ranging from 7.81 ± 1.53 to 62.5 ± 3.28 μg/ml. The extract also preferentially reduced the viability of malignant MCF-7 and HepG2 cell lines, with IC50 values of 125.35 ± 4.28 and 182.49 ± 3.19 μg/ml, respectively.

The antifungal activity has been evaluated against clinically relevant fungi. One study evaluated the antifungal activity of Languas galangal rhizome (a synonym for A. galanga) traditionally used in Sri Lanka for the treatment of skin infections caused by fungi. Dried, powdered rhizome was successively extracted and the antifungal activity was assessed against Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger.

Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate for in vitro antimicrobial/antifungal activity; no robust human clinical trials have been conducted specifically for infection treatment with galangal monotherapy.

5.5 Anticancer Activity

Galangin has shown great anti-cancer potential in different types of cancers. Recent studies have increasingly focused on its anti-cancer activities, synergistic therapies, and formulation technologies. Galangin has been acknowledged as a pharmacologically safe and effective anti-cancer drug candidate that deserves further research. Recent studies reveal that galangal extraction could address various malignancies, including liver, colorectal, gastric, lung, and breast cancers.

Although clinical studies on the anticancer effects of galangal or its active components are currently lacking, similar clinical research has provided a theoretical foundation for their safety.

Evidence strength: Entirely preclinical (in vitro and animal models). No human clinical trials have evaluated galangal or galangin for cancer treatment or prevention. This area, while scientifically active and mechanistically plausible, remains entirely at the preclinical stage.

5.6 Neuroprotection and Neurodegenerative Disease

Several studies have confirmed that A. officinarum exerts neuroprotective effects by reducing oxidative stress and cell apoptosis, promoting neurite outgrowth, and modulating neurotransmitter levels and signalling pathways. However, the underlying mechanisms of galangal in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease are still poorly understood. Further studies on brain tissue and cognitive and motor functions in animal models are needed to validate in vitro results, and further clinical studies are needed to confirm safety and efficacy in CNS disorders.

Evidence strength: Preliminary. Mechanistic in vitro and animal model data are promising, but specific human clinical trials targeting neurodegenerative diseases are absent.

5.7 Male Fertility

According to a clinical study, giving men with idiopathic infertility 300 mg of Alpinia officinarum Hance rhizome extract orally every day may increase the quantity and quality of sperm. During the 30-day treatment period, no participants experienced any significant adverse reactions.

Evidence strength: Very limited. This finding comes from a single small clinical study using A. officinarum (lesser galangal) at a specific dose; independent replication is required before any conclusions can be drawn.

5.8 Antioxidant and Anti-Aging Activity

Both ACA and galangin found in Alpinia sp. protect human dermal fibroblasts from senescence by inhibiting NF-κB activation, decreasing the expression of inflammatory factors, and upregulating IGF1R/Akt-related proteins. These actions indicate that galangin may be a potential candidate for developing natural anti-ageing products that protect the skin from damage caused by reactive oxygen species. This work is, however, based on cell culture data.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (in vitro) only. No human clinical trials on anti-aging endpoints have been published.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Galangal

• Gastrointestinal system: Treatment of dyspepsia, rheumatic pains, and gastrointestinal complaints including diarrhea, nausea, and ulcers.
• Central nervous system / cognition: Greater galangal has been used for thousands of years in traditional medicine; its CNS stimulant activity and neuroprotective effects have been proved both in animal models and human trials.
• Musculoskeletal system: Used for rheumatism and chronic inflammatory conditions in traditional medicine.
• Metabolic / endocrine system: A. galanga is known to have anti-diabetic activity, primarily mediated through α-glucosidase inhibition by galangin.
• Immune system / antimicrobial: A. galanga and A. officinarum have been found to have biological actions including antioxidant, anticancer, antiinflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, gastroprotective, and antiallergic properties.
• Reproductive system: Traditional use as an emmenagogue and aphrodisiac; one clinical study reports improvement in sperm parameters.
• Skin and dermatological system: Traditionally used for the management of eczema and pityriasis versicolor.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Doses

Galangal is available in multiple formulations, including raw or dried rhizome, powdered root, standardized aqueous or ethanolic extracts in capsule or tablet form, essential oils, and topical cream formulations.

Clinical studies of galangal monotherapy are lacking to provide a basis for broad dosage recommendations. Reported doses from specific studies are as follows:

• 300 mg of standardized Alpinia galanga aqueous extract (AGE): Used in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over clinical study examining acute effects on mental alertness, accuracy, and fatigue; sixty-two adults received either 300 mg of AGE or placebo 30 minutes after lunch.
• 300 mg per capsule of A. galanga extract: Used in a randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, placebo-controlled clinical trial of 59 patients with moderate caffeine intake, examining effects of the extract alone, caffeine alone, a combination, or placebo.
• 300 mg daily of A. officinarum rhizome extract (lesser galangal): Used in a clinical study of men with idiopathic infertility reporting increased sperm quantity and quality over a 30-day treatment period.

No dosage recommendations based on robust dose-finding studies or systematic reviews are available for general therapeutic use of galangal in humans.

8. Safety Considerations

8.1 General Tolerability

Galangal root has been used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine for centuries and is likely safe when consumed in the amounts typically found in foods. That said, there is limited information regarding a safe dosage or the potential side effects of consuming it in larger amounts, such as those found in supplements. Food-level use is widely tolerated. In controlled trials of standardized Alpinia galanga extracts lasting up to 12 weeks, adverse events were low and similar to placebo, and basic cardiovascular measures (e.g., QT interval, heart rate, blood pressure) and sleep quality showed no concerning changes.

8.2 Toxicological Data (Animal Studies)

Research reveals little or no information regarding adverse reactions with human use of galangal. In a murine study assessing acute toxicity, A. galanga ethanolic extract caused defecation, writhing, sedation, and calmness, while A. galanga dichloromethane extract caused increased respiration, piloerection, Straub tail, tremors, increased muscle tone, and sedation. In the same study, the treatment period was extended to 12 weeks to assess chronic toxicity. Compared with control, mice receiving either extract did not differ in terms of body weight, food consumption, or water consumption. However, treatment with either extract was associated with increases in weight of the heart, liver, spleen, and kidneys.

One animal study observed that doses of 2,000 mg/kg of body weight resulted in serious side effects, including a drop in energy levels, lack of appetite, excessive urination, diarrhea, coma, and even death. These side effects were absent at significantly smaller dosages of 300 mg/kg of body weight.

In a separate evaluation of oral toxicity, oral administration of galangal extract did not produce any significant changes in ALT or AST levels, indicating no adverse effect on hepatocyte functions of tested animals. Normal levels of BUN and creatinine also reflected a reduced likelihood of renal problems.

8.3 Potential Drug Interactions

Robust interaction studies are limited. Given the family resemblance to ginger and the presence of phenylpropanoids and terpenes, caution is warranted if taking anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs (e.g., warfarin, clopidogrel), and caution regarding hypoglycemic medications if changes in appetite or meal patterning are noticed. Recent reviews of Alpinia species note a possible increase in warfarin effect with A. galanga, which is a practical consideration for anyone on anticoagulant therapy.

8.4 Special Populations

Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking. Information about the safety and potential side effects of galangal root supplements in humans is lacking in general. The abortifacient properties attributed to the plant in traditional medicine further warrant avoidance of supplemental doses during pregnancy.

8.5 Dermal and Topical Safety

In one evaluation of the hexane extract of galangal rhizome for acute dermal, oral, and intraperitoneal toxicities using OECD guidelines, the undiluted crude galangal extract showed negligible irritation on non-abraded skin of New Zealand white rabbits, with a 0.25 primary irritation index, whereas the abraded skin of the rabbits showed irritation for all tested dilutions of galangal extract. The dermal application of galangal extract does not show any toxicologically adverse effect on rabbits without wounds and scratches, suggesting the undiluted extract may have the potential to be used in topical dermal applications after clinical testing with human volunteers.

References

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• ScienceDirect Topics — Alpinia galanga Overview
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• Alpinia officinarum (Galangal): A Beneficial Plant — J Med Public Health (2023)
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• ScienceDirect Topics — Galangal Overview
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• PMC — Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Some Plants of Genus Alpinia: Insights from In Vitro, In Vivo, and Human Studies (2025)
• PMC — Revealing the Reversal Effect of Galangal (Alpinia galanga L.) Extract Against Oxidative Stress in Metastatic Breast Cancer Cells and Normal Fibroblast Cells (2020)
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• PubMed — In Vitro and In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory Activity of a Combination of Extracts from Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Alpinia galanga, and Withania somnifera Used in Unani Medicine (2024)
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