Indian nightshade

Other Names

African eggplantAkrantaAnachundaiAnkrantiAubergine de Siam à fruits panachésBadagan barriBadajan barriBadi KateriBahupatriBarhantaBhantakiBhejibegunBhoyaringaniBhui ringaniBirhattaBrhatiBrihatiBrihati DwayaBrihatikaBush tomatoCerucuntaCeruvalutinaChota kateriCittimulagaDoraliDovadiDusparsaDuspradharsiniEla batuGelber NachtschattenHairy-fruited eggplantHinguliHosoba togetoge nasubiKandan kattiriKandankattiriKandayariKandyaliKantakariKantakari (Bengali)KantakiKarimulliKataiKatai KalaamKatai KalaanKatariKateliKateriKshudra bhantaakiKshudrabhantakiKshudravartakiKuliLarge eggplantMahabrihatiMahatiMahatikrantaMahoriMahotikaMao guo qieMaraghoniMullamkattiNelagullaNelamulakaNidigdhikaNidightikaPapparamalliPapparamulliPedda MulakaPinnamulakaPoison berryPuttiriccuntaiRambegunRamgulaRashritikaRinganiSimhiSinhiSinhikaSolanum anguivi Lam.Solanum distichum Schum. & Thonn.Solanum ferox L.Solanum indicum L.Solanum lasiocarpumSolanum mairei H.Lév.Solanum surattense Burm.f.Solanum violaceum OrtegaSolanum virginianum Jacq.Solanum virginianum L.Solanum virginicum L.Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl.SubhiringaniSurattense nightshadeTella MulakaTellamulakaThai green eggplantThai striped eggplantThorny nightshadeUbhi ringaniVakuduVanabhantaVanavrintakiVanavrntakiVartakiVyaghriVyakudWarumbaWild Indian brinjalYellow-berried nightshadeYellow-fruit nightshade

Synopsis

Indian Nightshade (Solanum indicum L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Nomenclature

Botanical and Chemical Names

Solanum indicum Linn., commonly known as Indian Nightshade or Poison Berry, belongs to the family Solanaceae. The accepted scientific binomial is Solanum indicum L., with the author citation referring to Carl Linnaeus. The botanical name is Solanum indicum Linn. (syn. S. ferox L. non ambig., Family Solanaceae). In Hindi it is known as Badi Kateri or Vanabhanta; in Telugu as Pedda Mulaka or Tella Mulaka; in Bengali as Rambegun or Vyakud; in Tamil as Anachundai or Papparamalli; in Marathi as Dorali; in Gujarati as Ubhi Ringani; and in Farsi as Katai Kalaam.

The plant is scientifically classified as Indian nightshade or brihati. It is important to note a significant taxonomic complexity: the common name "Indian nightshade" is applied, depending on region and authority, to more than one species. Solanum virginianum, also called Surattense nightshade, yellow-fruit nightshade, yellow-berried nightshade, Indian nightshade, Thai green eggplant, or Thai striped eggplant, is a medicinal plant used mostly in India. Solanum surattense Burm. f. and Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. and Wendl. are synonyms of Solanum virginianum L. Thus, in the Ayurvedic literature the name "Brihati" is sometimes ambiguous, and in the market, different plants of the Solanum genus such as Solanum torvum, Solanum incanum, Solanum trilobatum, and Solanum melongena are used due to the unavailability of genuine Brihati (Solanum indicum L.). This article focuses primarily on Solanum indicum L. in the strict sense.

Natural Source and Distribution

Spreading across Africa and Asia, particularly in tropical lowland regions below 1,200 m above sea level, Solanum indicum Linn. is a widely practiced versatile plant species with a rich history of utilization by traditional medicinal systems such as Ayurveda and the Traditional Chinese Medicine system (TCM). It is native to India and can be found throughout the country, primarily in warmer climates up to an elevation of 1,500 metres. It is mainly found in India, Malaya, Sri Lanka, and parts of China, typically growing in roadside areas and wastelands.

Botanical Description

Solanum indicum Linn. is a spiny shrub that can reach a height of up to 1.5 metres. The bark is covered with fine grey hairs and dotted with large pores. The flowers are white and purple in colour, growing in clusters of 2–8, with five pointed petals and yellow anthers. The fruit is a globular berry, which is initially green and turns yellow or orange as it matures.

Common Preparations and Dosage Forms

The plant holds a significant place in traditional medicine, especially within Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani systems; historically, its berries, roots, and leaves have been utilised for their diverse health benefits. Common dosage forms documented in traditional Ayurvedic sources include:

Powder (Churna): 1–3 grams, mixed with honey or warm water.
Decoction (Kwath): 50–100 ml, taken twice daily.
Juice (Swarasa): 10–20 ml of freshly extracted juice from the leaves or roots.
Powder: 2–3 g three times a day; Decoction: one ounce (30 ml) three times a day. (This higher dose range appears in a separate Ayurvedic source.)
Dosage as cited in another Ayurvedic reference: Powder — 1–2 grams, in divided dose per day; Water decoction (Kashaya) — 50–100 ml, in divided dose per day, based on a doctor's advice.

Ayurvedic practitioners traditionally use the dried fruit and seeds; sometimes roots are powdered too, though less common.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda

Traditional practice of Āyurveda in ancient India dates back to at least the first millennium BC. In classical Ayurveda — texts like the Charaka Samhita (circa 1st–2nd century CE) and Sushruta Samhita — Brihati is referred to for its capacity to "enlarge" digestive fire (agni) and clear respiratory channels. In the Charaka Samhita, it is classified within the Kanthya group (herbs used in throat disorders), Hikkanigrahana group (herbs for hiccups), Shothahara group (anti-inflammatory herbs), and Angamarda Prashamana group (pain-relieving herbs).

The plant is recognised in Ayurveda as one of the ten herbs in the Dashamoola group, a collection of roots used for various systemic diseases. Specifically, Dashamoola — the ten-root formulation — includes Bilva (Aegle marmelos), Agnimantha (Premna integrifolia), Shyonaka (Oroxylum indicum), Patala (Stereospermum suaveolens), Gambhari (Gmelina arborea), Brihati (Solanum indicum), Kantakari (Solanum surattense), Gokshura (Tribulus terrestris), Shalaparni (Desmodium gangeticum), and Prishnaparni (Uraria picta).

The root of Solanum indicum is a critical component in 68 Ayurvedic formulations, emphasizing its therapeutic importance. It is frequently incorporated into formulations like Dashamoola Kwatha and Brihatyadi Kashaya, emphasising its role in managing respiratory disorders, urinary tract conditions, and inflammatory conditions.

Solanum indicum's medicinal qualities in Ayurvedic terms are described as: Rasa (taste) — Katu (pungent) and Tikta (bitter); Guna (qualities) — Laghu (lightness) and Rooksha (dryness); Veerya — Ushna (hot potency); Vipaka — Katu (undergoes pungent taste conversion after digestion); and it balances Kapha and Vata doshas.

Solanum indicum (Poison berries) was also used in the process of organic plant mutagenesis by ancient Indian agriculturists, a technology described in treatises such as the Vrikshayurveda. Solanum indicum, as one of the ten Dashamoola herbs, is also mentioned in the Garuda Purana in connection with the treatment of elephants (Gajāyurveda).

Siddha and Unani Systems

Solanum indicum Linn., commonly known as "Karimulli" in Tamil and "Poison berry" in English, is a significant plant in the Solanaceae family found throughout tropical regions; the plant is recognised for its roots and has substantial medicinal value in traditional Indian medicine systems, including Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha, with its therapeutic applications highlighting its importance as a major medicinal plant within these practices.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Spreading across Africa and Asia, Solanum indicum is a widely practised versatile plant species with a rich history of utilisation in the Traditional Chinese Medicine System (TCM).

Traditional Uses by Indication

Solanum indicum has a long history of use in traditional medicine for treatment of respiratory tract disorders, asthma, cold, cough, infectious diseases, liver conditions, chronic skin conditions (such as psoriasis and ringworm), inflammatory conditions, painful periods, fevers, diarrhoea, eye diseases, and hydrophobia.

Ancient practitioners used Solanum indicum as a remedy for respiratory ailments such as asthma, cough, and bronchitis; its expectorant and anti-inflammatory properties were harnessed to soothe sore throats and reduce chest congestion. The plant was also valued for treating digestive disturbances; its decoctions were administered to alleviate flatulence, indigestion, and abdominal discomfort. Beyond respiratory and digestive support, Solanum indicum has been employed in managing skin conditions, fever, and certain types of pain.

Specific traditional preparations recorded in classical texts include:

For anorexia — Solanum indicum is cooked and mixed with spices, then consumed with curd to increase appetite.
For fever — Solanum indicum fruit, Pippali, and ginger are used to prevent sneezing and regain consciousness.
For alopecia — the fruit juice of Solanum indicum mixed with honey is applied locally.
The roots are described as useful in vitiated conditions of Vata and Kapha, odontalgia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, cough, skin disease, respiratory and cardiac disorders, and ulcers.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Alkaloids and Glycoalkaloids

A critical aspect of Solanum indicum's medicinal efficacy lies in its rich phytochemical profile, which includes various steroidal alkaloids and glycoalkaloids such as solasodine, solanidine, solasonine, solamargine, and solanine; these compounds exhibit a variety of biological activities, contributing to the plant's therapeutic applications.

The principal alkaloids, their structures, and proposed activities are:

Solasodine: Known for its steroidal structure, solasodine serves as a precursor for the synthesis of various steroidal drugs, and also possesses anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. Solasodine is an important starting material for the partial synthesis of steroidal hormones.
Solamargine: Solamargine has shown significant cytotoxic effects against cancer cells and is being explored for its role in cancer therapy.
Solanine: This glycoalkaloid exhibits strong antimicrobial properties and has been studied for its potential anticancer activity.
Solanidine and Solasonine: Steroidal alkaloids/glycoalkaloids including solasodine, solasonine, solamargine, solanidine, and solanine have been reported by various investigators.

Alkaloids are present in concentrations of approximately 0.2–1.8% in fruits and 0.32% in leaves.

Flavonoids

Solanum indicum contains several flavonoids, including quercetin, a potent antioxidant that helps in reducing oxidative stress and has anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anticancer properties. Flavonoids identified include quercetin and kaempferol, with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential.

Steroidal Saponins and Other Phytochemicals

The presence of various phytoconstituents in the plant has been documented, including steroidal saponins, sesquiterpenoids, hydroxycoumarins, phenolic compounds, coumarins, coumarinolignoids, alkaloids, saponins, fatty acids, glycerides of the oil, and triterpenes. Phytochemical extracts and fractions of Solanum indicum using methanol, hexane, ethanol, water, and chloroform as solvents have been investigated via chromatographic, HPLC, and spectrometric analyses to identify solasodine, lupeol, quercetin, solanocarpine, and selenic acid. Saponins identified include diosgenin and yamogenin, with immunomodulatory and antimicrobial potential; tannins include ellagic acid and gallic acid, with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential.

Nutritional Composition of Fruit

The fruit of Solanum indicum contains approximately 8% crude fibre, 40.67% carbohydrates, 23.47% crude protein, 5.26% crude fat, and a caloric value of 303.9 on a wet weight basis.

Proposed Mechanisms of Action

Several pharmacologically important lead compounds are found in Solanum species, including steroidal alkaloids such as solasodine, solasonine, solamargine, and other medicinally important alkaloids; solasodine and its glycosylated derivatives, such as solamargine and solanine, have been identified for their medicinal potential in developing new drugs against various human diseases.

In the context of anti-inflammatory activity, solanidine, α-chaconine, and α-solanine have been reported as anti-inflammatory compounds. For anticancer activity involving solanine, its anticancer potential is evident through its ability to induce apoptosis and hinder cell growth, migration, and invasion both in vitro and in vivo; notably, its therapeutic efficacy against liver cancer has been investigated; solanine effectively inhibits matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), thereby impeding tumour development and stemness. At the level of cellular toxicology, the true mechanism of solanine toxicity in humans is not well understood, but Solanum glycoalkaloids have been shown to inhibit cholinesterase, disrupt cell membranes, and cause birth defects; one study suggests that the toxic mechanism of solanine involves interaction with mitochondrial membranes, where it opens the mitochondrial permeability transition pores of the inner mitochondrial membrane, decreasing the membrane potential — the opening of these pores leads to Ca²⁺ being transported from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm, triggering cell damage and apoptosis.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

Important caveat: Several preclinical studies have explored the pharmacological effects of Solanum indicum extracts, and research indicates that it possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities, which may underlie some of its traditional uses. While these findings are promising, it is important to note that clinical evidence in humans is still limited; few controlled human trials have been conducted, and more rigorous research is needed to confirm its efficacy and safety for specific health claims. The evidence below is categorised by study type, and the level of evidence is characterised honestly throughout.

4.1 Antioxidant Activity

An in vitro study evaluated the antioxidant, free radical (DPPH) scavenging, in vitro anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial potential of aqueous extracts of various parts (leaves, root, and stem) of Solanum indicum; the aqueous extract of the root showed the highest content of phenols, tannins, flavonoids, and vitamin C compared with leaf and stem extracts, and the high antioxidant status of the root extract was reflected in DPPH scavenging potential and HRBC membrane stabilising assay. In total, 11, 10, and 9 compounds were identified by GC-MS in the aqueous extracts of leaf, root, and stem, respectively. Evidence strength: In vitro only; no human clinical data.

4.2 Antimicrobial Activity

Studies have shown that extracts from the plant possess antimicrobial properties effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, making it a potential natural alternative to synthetic antibiotics. In one in vitro study involving berry extracts, Listeria innocua LRGIA01 growth was completely inhibited by 0.04 g/mL of aqueous extract of Solanum indicum berries, while Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15742 growth was inhibited more by ethanolic than aqueous extract; E. coli and S. aureus growth were inhibited by 0.1 mg/mL ethanolic extract but not at lower concentrations; the results suggest that different classes of compounds are likely responsible for the antibacterial activities. The results of antibacterial activity show that the aqueous extract of Solanum indicum stem was very effective against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae; the stem part shows the presence of compounds with potent antimicrobial property, suggesting a possible application in pharmacognosy. Evidence strength: In vitro studies only; no clinical trials in humans.

4.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Brihati (Solanum indicum Linn.), a well-known drug of the Dashamoola group, has been extensively described in classical Ayurvedic texts for its effectiveness in inflammatory, respiratory, musculoskeletal, and visceral disorders. Preclinical investigations have confirmed anti-inflammatory effects in several assays. Despite being a rich source of solanine, one of the plant's most feared poisons, Solanum indicum has proved its value as a reservoir of antioxidants with hepatoprotective, anti-tumour, cytostatic, anti-convulsant, anti-ulcerogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Evidence strength: Preclinical (in vitro and animal); human clinical evidence is lacking.

4.4 Antidiabetic and Antihyperlipidemic Activity

A published peer-reviewed animal study (indexed in PubMed/PMC) specifically evaluated Solanum indicum: The study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-hyperlipidaemic activity of methanolic fruit extract of Solanum indicum (SIE) in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats; type II diabetes was induced in rats by an i.p. injection of STZ at a dose of 60 mg/kg; the effect of the fruit extract was evaluated at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight in STZ-induced diabetic rats for 30 days; oral administration of fruit extract caused a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in blood glucose level with a more prominent effect at 200 mg/kg; the fruit extract showed dose-dependent α-amylase and α-glycosidase inhibitory activity, and it reduced the serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels remarkably in diabetic rats. However, the hypoglycaemic activity of the plant has not been scientifically validated in human subjects. Evidence strength: Animal model only (STZ-induced rat model); no human clinical trials reported.

4.5 Hepatoprotective Activity

Phytoconstituents of Solanum indicum have been reported to demonstrate hepatoprotective effects, aiding in protecting the liver from damage caused by toxic substances. In the antidiabetic study above, treatment of diabetic rats with the extract at two different doses significantly reduced the activity of elevated liver enzymes (AST and ALT) compared to diabetic animals, revealing the hepatoprotective nature of the extract. Evidence strength: Animal model only; human evidence is absent.

4.6 Anticancer and Cytotoxic Activity

Carcinotoxic combinations of S. indicum with chemotherapy drugs (doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide) were screened for cytotoxicity by a MTT cell viability assay and colony formation assay, and the active plant extract was co-cultivated with cancer cells and macrophages to explore the immunomodulatory effect of S. indicum on regulating cancer-associated processes. Solamargine, a key glycoalkaloid of the plant, has shown significant cytotoxic effects against cancer cells and is being explored for its role in cancer therapy. Evidence strength: In vitro and limited in vivo animal models only; no human clinical evidence.

4.7 Respiratory Conditions

Solanum indicum is used in Ayurveda medicine for the treatment of respiratory conditions including asthma and bronchitis, and is thought to help cleanse the airways and lessen symptoms such as coughing and wheezing. The Dashamoola formulation, of which Brihati is a component, has been evaluated in clinical settings: clinical trials in humans made with whole plant extract of the related species Solanum surattense have shown its efficacy as an anti-asthmatic agent. No independent human clinical trials focused exclusively on Solanum indicum for respiratory indications are available in the indexed literature at this time. Evidence strength: Traditional use is well-documented; direct clinical evidence for S. indicum in isolation is absent; polyherbal formulation evidence exists for related species.

4.8 Overall Evidence Assessment

Scientific research has tested many of the traditional uses, revealing anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial activities as well as some cytotoxic and even antidiabetic effects; these pharmacological activities show potential future uses as organic drugs, natural health products, skincare formulations, and agricultural advancements. Nonetheless, Solanum indicum should be screened for its use against a wider range of diseases; further investigations in terms of the effect of extract concentration, duration of therapy, and various comparative studies with available synthetic drugs should be planned.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas

Various pharmacological effects of the plant, including antibacterial, antioxidant, anthelmintic, antiplasmodial, hepatoprotective, anticancer, laxative, cardiotonic activity, CNS depressant, and antihypertensive and hepatoprotective qualities, have been discovered in the plant.

Respiratory system: Brihati is used for conditions like asthma, bronchitis, cough, and colds; its expectorant and bronchodilator properties help in clearing mucus and relieving respiratory congestion.
Digestive system: Its decoctions were administered to alleviate flatulence, indigestion, and abdominal discomfort.
Liver: It is reported to have hepatoprotective activity.
Immune and antimicrobial: Some bioactive compounds have pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, analgesic, antipyretic, and gastrointestinal effects.
Metabolic/endocrine: Antidiabetic effects have been demonstrated in animal models (see Section 4.4).
Skin: Beyond respiratory and digestive support, Solanum indicum has been employed in managing skin conditions, fever, and certain types of pain; the roots and berries were often ground and combined with other botanicals to create poultices for skin infections and wounds.
Cardiovascular: Actions attributed in traditional contexts include cardiotonic and antihypertensive properties.

6. Dosage Forms and Doses Reported in Sources

The following dosage information is drawn exclusively from traditional Ayurvedic practice as documented in referenced sources. No standardised clinical dosage has been established in human trials for this plant.

Powder (Churna): 1–2 grams per day, in divided doses; water decoction (Kashaya) — 50–100 ml per day, in divided doses, based on a doctor's advice.
Alternative traditional doses: Powder — 1–3 grams mixed with honey or warm water; Decoction (Kwath) — 50–100 ml taken twice daily; Juice (Swarasa) — 10–20 ml of freshly extracted juice from the leaves or roots.
In the published antidiabetic animal study: the fruit extract was evaluated at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight in STZ-induced diabetic rats for 30 days.
Alkaloid content: 0.2–1.8% in fruits and 0.32% in leaves.

7. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Solanine Toxicity

Ingestion of solanine in moderate amounts can cause death; one study suggests that doses of 2 to 5 mg/kg of body weight can cause toxic symptoms, and doses of 3 to 6 mg/kg of body weight can be fatal. Solanine poisoning is primarily displayed by gastrointestinal and neurological disorders; symptoms include nausea, diarrhoea, vomiting, stomach cramps, burning of the throat, cardiac dysrhythmia, nightmares, headache, dizziness, itching, eczema, thyroid problems, and inflammation and pain in the joints. In more severe cases, hallucinations, loss of sensation, paralysis, fever, jaundice, dilated pupils, hypothermia, and death have been reported.

Mechanism of Solanine Toxicity

The toxicity of solanine inhibits acetylcholinesterase activity in the central nervous system and disrupts membrane integrity. Solanum glycoalkaloids have been shown to inhibit cholinesterase, disrupt cell membranes, and cause birth defects.

Hepatotoxicity Concern

The fruit of Solanum indicum poses an acute threat to livestock and humans, with elevated AST and ALT suggesting hepatotoxicity at high doses. The same preprint review notes, however, that abnormalities and toxic changes with a safety margin of more than 2–3 times were observed at the histopathological level, from which it was concluded that S. indicum is safe according to the available data. This assessment is based on limited preclinical data and should be interpreted cautiously.

Pregnancy and Lactation

The seeds of this plant have a property to boost uterine contraction, which has made their use relevant in dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, and in difficult labour and diseases related to the post-delivery period. This uterotonic property implies a potential risk during pregnancy. Pregnancy and breastfeeding: insufficient data is available, and high-alkaloid herbs are generally advised to be avoided unless supervised by an Ayurvedic physician.

Gastrointestinal Sensitivity

The elderly should start at a lower dose (1 g powder) to assess tolerance, as Brihati's pungent nature can irritate gastric mucosa. People with peptic ulcers should use caution, as Brihati may exacerbate gastric acidity if overdosed.

Taxonomic Adulteration Risk

In the market, different plants of the Solanum genus such as Solanum torvum, Solanum incanum, Solanum trilobatum, and Solanum melongena are used due to the unavailability of genuine Brihati (Solanum indicum L.). This substitution risk is significant, as different species within the genus carry different alkaloid profiles and toxicity thresholds.

General Phytotoxicology of Solanaceae Alkaloids

Although rich in alkaloids of medical importance, Solanaceae plants contain alkaloids with toxicity to humans and animals, ranging from mild irritation to fatal outcomes. Given that Solanum indicum fruits are documented to contain solanine concentrations up to 1.8%, and given established dose-dependent toxicity thresholds for solanine, this constituent warrants particular attention at high or prolonged doses.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Indian nightshade may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Indian nightshade may help support.

No body systems available.