Macaranga indica

Other Names

KendaMacaranga adenantha Gagnep.macaranga gumMacaranga indica WightTanarius indicus (Wight) KuntzeTrevia hernandiifolia RothTrewia hernandifolia RothTrewia hernandiifolia Rothyin du xue tong印度血桐盾叶木

Synopsis

Macaranga indica Wight: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Taxonomy, Nomenclature, and Botanical Description

1.1 Scientific and Common Names

Macaranga indica is a heliophilous evergreen plant native to South and Southeast Asia and China. Its accepted botanical authority is Macaranga indica Wight, first formally described by Robert Wight in 1852 in Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis (t. 1883). The species holds NCBI Taxonomy ID 109831 and is classified within the eudicots.

Its recognized synonyms include Macaranga adenantha Gagnep., Tanarius indicus (Wight) Kuntze, Trevia hernandiifolia Roth, and Trewia hernandiifolia Roth. In Bangladesh, the plant is locally known as Burna, Malata, and Nuibothi bang in the Marma language. In Sri Lanka it is called Kenda.

1.2 Taxonomic Position

Macaranga is a large genus of Old World tropical trees of the family Euphorbiaceae and the only genus in the subtribe Macaranginae (tribe Acalypheae). The full taxonomic hierarchy places the species within: Plantae → Tracheophyta → Magnoliopsida → Malpighiales → Euphorbiaceae → Acalyphoideae → Acalypheae → Macaranga. The IUCN Red List classifies the species as Least Concern (2022).

1.3 Morphology

Macaranga indica is a resinous tree up to 16 metres (52 ft) tall. The grayish bark is smooth in texture. Its leaves are simple and alternately arranged, peltate, orbicular-ovate, apex acuminate, and palmately 8 to 9-nerved. The unisexual flowers are dioecious. The one-seeded fruit is a globose capsule. More detailed morphological records note that leaves have a petiole 5–31 cm long, a lamina 13.5–30 × 10.5–18.5 cm, subcoriaceous with tawny pubescence and resinous yellow glands beneath. Flowers are unisexual and dioecious; the inflorescence is a panicle with zigzag branches and bracts bearing large flat glandular appendages. Gregarious trees exude a red, watery substance, and branchlets are fulvous tomentose and glaucous. Some sources describe the tree as reaching up to 25 m in height.

1.4 Geographic Distribution

The genus occurs in tropical Africa and Madagascar, and in tropical Asia from India to Indo-China, China, Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, Thailand, throughout the Malesian region, northern Australia and the Pacific, east to Fiji. Macaranga indica specifically has a distribution centered on South Asia and mainland Southeast Asia. It is a medicinal plant widely available in the Western Ghats.

1.5 Common Forms and Preparations

A crimson-colored resin called "macaranga gum" is obtained from this plant. Many parts of the plant are used for ayurvedic medicine in India and Sri Lanka. Preparations studied in the scientific literature include ethanol and methanol crude bark extracts, ethyl acetate leaf extracts, and isolated phytochemical fractions. A decoction of the leaves or roots of various Macaranga species is used as an internal medicine. In Malaysia, a decoction of the root-bark of various species is drunk to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, and fever, and used to clean wounds.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ayurvedic and South Asian Traditions

Many parts of the plant are used for ayurvedic medicine in India and Sri Lanka. Within the Ayurvedic system, different parts of the plant — including leaves, bark, resin, and roots — have been employed by traditional practitioners. It is traditionally used for various ailments in Bangladesh and other regions.

The plant has varieties of medical properties, including antibacterial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, cytotoxicity, and antidysentery applications, and is commonly used in the traditional medicine system. This plant also contains polyphenols, flavonoids, and other plant constituents that are presumed to underlie these traditional applications.

2.2 Uses Across the Macaranga Genus in Traditional Medicine

Plants of the Macaranga genus of the Euphorbiaceae are commonly used by traditional healers for the treatment of various diseases such as swellings, cuts, sores, diarrhea, cough, stomach-ache, hypertension, boils, furuncles, and bruises. The Macaranga genus has been used in traditional medicine for the treatments of cuts, swellings, boils, bruises, and sores.

2.3 Regional Folk Uses

M. indica has been used to support pepper vines in agricultural contexts, reflecting its broader economic and subsistence role. The resinous exudate — macaranga gum — can be used as a glue. In Bangladesh, the plant is known under several vernacular names and has been documented as part of local ethnobotanical knowledge. Macaranga indica Wight Ic (Family: Euphorbiaceae), synonyms M. flexuosa Wight, M. adenantha Gagnepain, Tanarius indicus (Wight) Kuntze, Trewia hernandifolia Roth, is a large evergreen tree.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Phytochemical Classes Identified in Crude Extracts

In chemical group tests, the result showed that the ethanol extract of Macaranga indica contains tannin, flavonoid, saponin, gum, steroid, and alkaloid groups. Preliminary phytochemical studies have confirmed the breadth of secondary metabolites in the species. Preliminary phytochemical studies have indicated that Macaranga indica contains a variety of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins.

3.2 Prenylated Flavonoids: The Signature Class

Previous phytochemical investigations on M. indica led to the isolation and identification of flavonoids, isoflavones, and their prenylated derivatives. Prenylated flavonoids are the most intensively investigated class of constituents from this species, and multiple research groups have isolated novel compounds bearing species-specific names.

From the twigs of M. indica, one study reported: three new prenylated flavonoids, macarindicins A–C (1–3), as well as seven known compounds (4–10) were isolated. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic interpretation. Compounds 2 and 3 enriched the diversity of the prenyl moiety in the genus Macaranga, especially in the aspect of various lengths of prenyl chain. All the known compounds were isolated from M. indica for the first time, and the plant was found to contain a large quantity of ellagic acid.

From the leaves of M. indica, a 2019 study isolated: three new prenylated flavonoids, macarindicins D–F (1–3), together with eight known compounds — macadenathin B (4), glyasperin A (5), kaempferol (6), quercetin (7), quercitrin (8), (+)-isolariciresinol (9), (–)-woonenoside XI (10), and (+)-lyoniresinol 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (11). Their structures were determined on the basis of extensive spectroscopic methods, including 1D-, 2D-NMR and MS data.

A further study of the leaves yielded: four new prenylated flavonoids, macarindicins I–IV (1–4), together with ten known compounds — broussoflavonol F (5), vedelianin (6), schweinfurthin E (7), vitexin (8), 2″-rhamnosyl vitexin (9), isovitexin (10), and several megastigmane glucosides.

3.3 Chromenoflavones: Macaflavones I and II

Two unique chromenoflavones were identified from the leaves of this species: two new chromenoflavones, macaflavones I and II, isolated from the leaves of Macaranga indica, characterized as 6,7,2,2-dimethylchromeno-8,γ,γ-dimethylallyl-3,3′,4′-trihydroxyflavone and 6,7,2,2-dimethylchromeno-8,γ,γ-dimethylallyl-3′,4′-dihydroxy-3-methoxyflavone, respectively, on the basis of UV, ¹H NMR, and mass spectral data.

3.4 Ellagic Acid

Three new prenylated flavonoids, together with six known prenylated flavonoids (4–9) and ellagic acid (10), were isolated from the twigs of this plant. All compounds were reported in M. indica for the first time, and large quantities of ellagic acid were found in this plant. Ellagic acid is a well-studied polyphenolic compound widely recognized in nutritional science for antioxidant properties.

3.5 Broader Secondary Metabolite Profile of the Genus

Chemical investigations of plants of this genus indicate that they constitute a rich source of isoprenylated, geranylated, and farnesylated flavonoids and stilbenes, terpenoids, coumarins, ellagic acid derivatives, and tannins. For M. indica specifically, polyphenols, flavonoids, and other plant constituents have been confirmed. The common flavonoids kaempferol and quercetin — identified from leaf isolations — are themselves well-characterized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory molecules.

3.6 Mechanisms of Action (Preclinical)

These constituents are recognized for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which may contribute to the plant's traditional therapeutic effects. The prenylated flavonoids class in particular has been described as follows: prenylated flavonoids are attracting great attention from the scientific community due to their structural uniqueness and remarkable biological activities. The different prenylation position, various lengths of prenyl chain, and further modifications on the prenyl moiety such as cyclization and hydroxylation result in chemical diversity, which also makes them exhibit promising biological activities.

Regarding COX-2 inhibition across the genus: phytochemical and pharmacological studies on a number of Macaranga species have led to the isolation of flavonoids, namely 3,7,3′,4′-tetramethylquercetin and 3,7-dimethylquercetin, which exhibit inhibition against cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). This inhibition of COX-2 plays an important role in chemoprevention.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Cytotoxic and Anticancer Activity

This is the area with the most concentrated published research on M. indica specifically. Multiple isolation-and-bioassay studies have been conducted, all at the in vitro (cell-line) level. No clinical human studies exist in the accessible literature.

Study 1 — Twigs, Macarindicins A–C (2015)

Three new prenylated flavonoids, macarindicins A–C (1–3), as well as seven known compounds (4–10), were isolated from the twigs of Macaranga indica. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic interpretation. Compounds 1–10 were tested for their cytotoxicity against four cancer cell lines (MCF-7, Hep G2, Hela, and P388) and showed IC₅₀ values in the range of 2.61–20.35 μg/mL.

Study 2 — Leaves, Macarindicins D–F (2019)

All isolated compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against KB, MCF-7, HepG-2, and LU human cancer cell lines. Compound 2 showed significant cytotoxic activity on all human cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values ranging from 11.0 to 17.0 μM. Compounds 3–5 exhibited moderate cytotoxic activity against all human cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values ranging from 15.0 to 38.2 μM.

Study 3 — Leaves, Macarindicins I–IV and Vedelianin (Tandfonline)

All isolated compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against four human cancer cell lines including KB, MCF-7, HepG-2, and LU. Compound 6 (vedelianin) significantly exhibited cytotoxic activity against all tested human cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values ranging from 4.7 to 11.0 μM. Compounds 2, 5, and 7 showed moderate cytotoxic activity with IC₅₀ values ranging from 7.0 to 38.7 μM.

Evidence strength: All anticancer data are in vitro, derived from cancer cell line assays (MCF-7 breast, HepG2 liver, HeLa cervical, KB oral, LU lung, P388 mouse leukemia). No animal tumor models or human clinical trials have been published for M. indica. These findings are preliminary and cannot be extrapolated to therapeutic claims in humans. Prenylated flavonoids play important roles in the plant's defensive strategy. Recently, research on prenylated flavonoids has received attention from scientists due to their promising and diverse bioactivities on multitarget tissues. Prenylated flavonoids have shown potential cytotoxic activity against tumor and cancer cell lines.

4.2 Antioxidant Activity

A bark bioactivity study documented in the World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research conducted DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging assays: in free radical scavenging assay, the IC₅₀ value of the ethanol extract was 0.79 μg/mL in comparison to the standard Trolox at 0.40 μg/mL. From the study, it was evident that the ethanol extract of M. indica showed moderate cytotoxicity and very strong antioxidant activity.

Evidence strength: Single in vitro study; no human clinical data. The antioxidant finding is consistent with the high content of ellagic acid and flavonoids identified from the same species, but clinical relevance remains unestablished.

4.3 Cytotoxicity Screen (Brine Shrimp Lethality Bioassay)

The ethanol extract of Macaranga indica Wight Ic has been investigated for the presence of its secondary metabolites and evaluation of biological activities of the crude extract in the brine shrimp lethality bioassay and antioxidant activity for the first time. In chemical group tests, the result showed that the ethanol extract of Macaranga indica contains tannin, flavonoid, saponin, gum, steroid, and alkaloid groups. In brine shrimp lethality bioassay after 18 hrs, the LC₅₀ of crude extract and standard vincristine sulphate were 95.17 and 95.15 μg/mL respectively; after 24 hrs, the values were 21.71 and 2.75 μg/mL respectively.

Evidence strength: The brine shrimp lethality assay is used as a rapid, preliminary screen for general biological activity and rough cytotoxicity. It is not a direct measure of anticancer activity, and data cannot be transposed to human therapeutic contexts.

4.4 Antidiabetic Activity

Based on previous reports, M. indica can render potential antidiabetic, antibacterial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory actions. The ethanolic leaf extract of M. indica tends to exert notable antidiabetic action against streptozotocin-induced diabetic animal models at a dose of 250 mg/kg body weight.

Evidence strength: Animal model only (streptozotocin-induced diabetes, a standard rodent model). No human clinical data. The dose of 250 mg/kg body weight was reported in the animal study only and cannot be directly applied to human supplementation.

4.5 Antimicrobial Activity

It has varieties of medical properties like antibacterial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, cytotoxicity, and antidysentery and is commonly used in the traditional medicine system. In vitro and animal studies have provided supportive evidence, demonstrating potential anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and free radical scavenging activities of Macaranga indica extracts.

Nanotechnology research has additionally examined M. indica leaf extract as a capping agent for green synthesis of silver nanoparticles: the Macaranga indica leaf extract was used as a capping agent for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles by using the microwave irradiation technique. Synthesized nanoparticles are characterized by UV-Vis spectra, XRD, EDX, FESEM, and FTIR. Interpretation of characterization data reveals that synthesized nanoparticles are in a spherical shape, monodispersed, and have particle sizes of approximately 15–20 nm. These nanoparticles were then tested for thermotolerant bacterial inhibition activity. This line of research remains at the experimental material-science stage.

Evidence strength: Antimicrobial data for M. indica specifically are limited to in vitro assays and preliminary nanoparticle studies. No controlled human clinical trials for any infectious indication have been published.

4.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Anti-inflammatory activity has been attributed to the flavonoid and phenolic acid content of the plant. Previous pharmacological studies of the crude extracts, fractions, and isolated compounds of the Macaranga genus demonstrate a wide range of biological activities including anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities. For M. indica specifically, this claim is supported by the identified COX-2-inhibiting flavonoids common to the genus and by general in vitro observations of anti-inflammatory activity.

Evidence strength: Genus-level mechanistic data (COX-2 inhibition by methylated quercetin derivatives); no M. indica-specific published randomized controlled trials or clinical studies have been identified.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Macaranga indica

Oncology / Cell biology: In vitro cytotoxic activity documented against breast (MCF-7), liver (HepG2), cervical (HeLa), oral (KB), lung (LU), and murine leukemia (P388) cancer cell lines through prenylated flavonoid isolates.
Metabolic / Endocrine: Antidiabetic potential demonstrated in streptozotocin-induced rodent models at 250 mg/kg body weight dose of ethanolic leaf extract.
Antioxidant / Redox system: Strong DPPH radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀ 0.79 μg/mL) in vitro; attributed to flavonoids, ellagic acid, and tannins.
Microbiology / Infection: Traditional use for dysentery, sores, and wounds; preliminary in vitro antimicrobial data across the genus.
Inflammation: COX-2 inhibiting flavonoids identified in genus Macaranga; anti-inflammatory use documented in traditional medicine for swellings, boils, and bruises.
Skin / Wound healing: Resin (macaranga gum) used topically in traditional practice; genus-level evidence for antityrosinase activity relevant to skin pigmentation.
Gastrointestinal: Traditional use of leaf/root decoctions for diarrhoea, dysentery, and stomach complaints across the genus and in Bangladesh-specific folk medicine records.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

No standardized supplemental dosage forms (capsules, tablets, tinctures) appear in the accessible peer-reviewed literature for Macaranga indica. The following dosages and extract concentrations have been reported strictly within experimental contexts:

Antidiabetic animal study: The ethanolic leaf extract of M. indica was tested at 250 mg/kg body weight in streptozotocin-induced diabetic animal models.
Brine shrimp lethality / antioxidant (bark ethanol extract): LC₅₀ values of crude extract in brine shrimp assay were 95.17 μg/mL at 18 hrs and 21.71 μg/mL at 24 hrs. In free radical scavenging assay, IC₅₀ was 0.79 μg/mL.
Cytotoxicity, isolated prenylated flavonoids (2015 twig study): Compounds 1–10 were tested for cytotoxicity against four cancer cell lines and showed IC₅₀ values in the range of 2.61–20.35 μg/mL.
Cytotoxicity, macarindicins D–F (2019 leaf study): Compound 2 showed IC₅₀ values ranging from 11.0 to 17.0 μM; compounds 3–5 showed IC₅₀ values ranging from 15.0 to 38.2 μM.
Cytotoxicity, vedelianin and other isolates (further leaf study): Compound 6 (vedelianin) showed IC₅₀ values ranging from 4.7 to 11.0 μM; compounds 2, 5, and 7 showed IC₅₀ values ranging from 7.0 to 38.7 μM.

All reported concentrations are laboratory experimental values (in vitro IC₅₀ or animal mg/kg doses). No human equivalent dosing has been established in any published study.

7. Safety Considerations

7.1 Overall State of Safety Data

Clinical validation in human subjects remains limited. No systematic toxicology studies — acute, subacute, subchronic, or reproductive — specific to M. indica have been published in the peer-reviewed literature identified through this review. Safety concerns, including potential toxicity and phototoxic effects, necessitate further clinical research across Macaranga species generally.

7.2 Family-Level Cautions

Macaranga indica belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family. Many members of this family are known to contain irritant or toxic latex compounds, and the family broadly should be approached with caution regarding unpurified plant materials. This is a general botanical consideration; specific toxicological data for M. indica have not been published in the sources reviewed.

7.3 Cytotoxic Potential of Isolated Compounds

Several isolated prenylated flavonoids from M. indica demonstrated meaningful cytotoxicity against both cancerous and normal cell lines in vitro. Macaranga indica was evaluated for brine shrimp lethality bioassay and antioxidant activity, demonstrating moderate cytotoxicity and significant antioxidant potential. The moderate cytotoxicity observed in brine shrimp and cancer cell line assays indicates the presence of biologically potent compounds that may have adverse effects at sufficient doses.

7.4 Ellagic Acid Component Safety

M. indica has been shown to contain large quantities of ellagic acid, a compound with its own safety profile. Ellagic acid is a phenolic acid compound used as a food additive for its antioxidative properties. Because of its chemical characteristics, use is also expected in cosmetics. A 90-day subchronic toxicity study in F344 rats at doses of 9.4–42.3 g/kg body weight noted reduced body weight gain at higher doses but no mortality.

7.5 Need for Further Investigation

Preliminary phytochemical screening and biological assays indicate that the plant possesses noteworthy cytotoxic and antioxidant activities, warranting further investigation into its chemical constituents and mechanisms of action to fully understand its health benefits. Advanced studies including LC-MS can be carried out to get a bigger picture of the chemical constituents present in the plant and correlate the bioactivities with their mechanism of action.

Summary of Evidence Quality

The available scientific literature on Macaranga indica as a dietary supplement or medicinal ingredient consists almost entirely of in vitro phytochemistry and bioassay studies, supplemented by one cited animal model study for antidiabetic activity. In vitro and animal studies have provided supportive evidence, demonstrating potential anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and free radical scavenging activities of Macaranga indica extracts; however, clinical validation in human subjects remains limited. No human clinical trials, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, government health body monographs (NIH ODS, NCCIH, EMA, EFSA), official pharmacopeial monographs (USP, WHO, ESCOP), or Cochrane reviews have been located that address Macaranga indica specifically. All pharmacological claims from the existing literature must therefore be understood as preclinical and hypothesis-generating rather than clinically validated.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Macaranga indica may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Macaranga indica may help support.

No body systems available.