Mangostin

Other Names

1,3,6-Trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2,8-bis(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-9H-xanthen-9-one1,3,6-Trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2,8-bis(3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl)-9H-xanthen-9-one1,3,6-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2,8-bis(3-methylbut-2-enyl)-9-xanthenone1,3,6-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2,8-bis(3-methylbut-2-enyl)xanthen-9-one1,3,6-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2,8-bis(3-methylbut-2-enyl)xanthone1,3,6-Trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2,8-di(3-methyl-2-butenyl)xanthone9H-Xanthen-9-one, 1,3,6-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2,8-bis(3-methyl-2-buten-1-yl)-alpha-MangostinGarciniaGarcinia malaccensisGarcinia mangostana L.Garcinia mangostana var. borneensisGarcinia mangostana var. malaccensisGarcinia mangostana var. mangostanaKandisKing's fruitMăng cụtMang cutManggihManggisManggistanManggustaManggustanMangisMangji persimmonMangkhutMangostaMangostaanboomMangostanMangostánMangostana garciniaMangostanbaumMangostaneMangostanierMangostanoMangostaoMangosteenMangostimMangostineMangoustanMangoustanierMangustaMangustanMesetorMingutMongkhutNSC 139154NSC 27593NSC-30552Purple mangosteenQueen of fruitsSementahSemetahShan zhuα-Mangostinα-MG山竹

Synopsis

Mangostin (α-, β-, and γ-Mangostin): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity

1.1 Botanical Source and Nomenclature

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is a tropical tree native to Southeast Asia that produces a fruit whose pericarp contains a family of tricyclic isoprenylated polyphenols referred to as xanthones. It is an evergreen tropical tree belonging to the Clusiaceae family that grows in Southeast Asia, and is cultivated mainly as a source of its highly palatable fruit, consisting of a fragrant white internal pulp divided in septa, contained in a dark purple rind.

Mangosteen is thought to be native to Southeast Asia or Indonesia and remains largely indigenous to the Malay Peninsula, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and the Moluccas. During the past two centuries, mangosteen has been cultivated in tropical areas such as India, Honduras, Brazil, and Australia. Thailand is responsible for approximately 85% of the total production of 150,000 tons per year.

The term "mangostin" refers specifically to a group of xanthone compounds—principally α-mangostin, β-mangostin, and γ-mangostin—isolated from the fruit and other parts of the plant. These should be distinguished from the common name "mangosteen," which refers to the fruit and plant as a whole. Xanthones have been isolated from pericarp, whole fruit, heartwood, and leaves. The most studied xanthones are alpha-, beta-, and gamma-mangostins, garcinone E, 8-deoxygartanin, and gartanin.

1.2 Chemical Identity of the Principal Mangostins

α-Mangostin (α-MG) is the most abundant phytochemical derived from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana L. It is a tetraoxygenated diprenylated xanthone. The chemical structure of the α-MG molecule is 1,3,6-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2,8-bis(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-9H-xanthen-9-one. Its CAS number is 6147-11-1.

Xanthones have a unique chemical structure composed of a tricyclic aromatic system (C6–C3–C6). Isoprene, methoxyl and hydroxyl groups are located at various positions on the A and B rings, resulting in a diverse array of xanthone compounds. Xanthones are found in a select few higher plant families.

At least 68 distinct xanthones have been identified in different parts of the G. mangostana plant, with 50 being present in the fruit's pericarp at higher concentrations than in the aril or edible portion of the fruit. Alpha-mangostin (α-MG) and gamma-mangostin (γ-MG) are the most common xanthones in mangosteen fruits, although there are also beta-mangostin (β-MG), gartanin, and others.

The presence of hydroxyl groups, in particular, enhances antioxidant capacity, allowing α-mangostin to scavenge free radicals effectively, thereby exerting cytoprotective effects.

1.3 Distribution Within the Plant

The pulp and pericarp of mangosteen fruit are popular food, beverage, and health products, whereby 60% of the fruit consists of the pericarp. The major metabolite in the previously neglected or less economically significant part of the fruit, the pericarp, is the prenylated xanthone α-mangostin. The inedible peel constitutes more than 50% of the fresh weight and is often discarded as waste.

1.4 Common Forms and Preparations

α-, β-, and γ-mangostin have been extensively studied due to their applications in nutritional supplements, herbal cosmetics, and pharmaceutical preparations. Commercial preparations include:

Whole fruit juice or beverage: beverages containing mangosteen pulp and pericarps are sold worldwide as nutritional supplements.
Pericarp extract capsules/tablets: standardized extracts of the dried rind in encapsulated form, often standardized to xanthone content.
Topical gels: mangosteen gel applied to the gums has been evaluated in clinical trials.
Mouthwash/oral rinse: aqueous extracts formulated for periodontal applications.
Dried powdered rind: the sliced and dried rind is powdered and administered to overcome dysentery in traditional contexts.

The major metabolite α-mangostin is typically isolated using solvent extraction methods that involve large volumes of halogenated solvents either via direct or indirect extraction.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Southeast Asia

The pericarp of mangosteen fruit has been used in traditional medicine in Southeast Asia for centuries to treat infection, wounds, inflammation, and diarrhea. Early reports of the traditional uses of infusions and decoctions of its peels and seeds to treat gastrointestinal and urinary tract infections, and as anti-scorbutic, laxative, and anti-fever agent, date from almost two hundred years ago (Descourtilz et al., 1821; Lilly and Colman, 1833).

Mangosteen bark, leaf, root, and rind have been used in traditional Southeast Asian medicine for centuries—particularly in Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines—as remedies for diarrhea, dysentery, fever, gonorrhea, menstrual irregularities, urinary tract infections, eczema, itching, skin infections, and wound healing. The bark has been applied topically for infected wounds and ulcers.

Dried fruits were shipped from Singapore to Calcutta and China for medicinal use. The sliced and dried rind was powdered and administered to overcome dysentery. Made into an ointment, it was applied on eczema and other skin disorders. The rind decoction was taken to relieve diarrhea and cystitis and was applied externally as an astringent lotion.

In Southeast Asia, mangosteen is commonly known as the "Queen of Fruits," and is frequently paired with durian, the "King of Fruits." In Chinese food therapy, mangosteen is considered "cooling," making it a good counterbalance to the "heaty" durian.

2.2 South and Central America, and the Caribbean

During the past two centuries, mangosteen has been cultivated in tropical areas such as India, Honduras, Brazil, and Australia. Garcinia mangostana originates from Southeast Asia and came to Brazil about 80 years ago, where it mainly grows in the states of Pará and Bahia. Traditional uses that spread with cultivation include the use of the fruit hull in South American folk medicine for digestive complaints and skin parasites.

2.3 Summary of Traditional Preparations

Decoction of the rind: boiled in water and taken orally for diarrhea, dysentery, cystitis, and fever.
Powdered dried rind: administered orally against dysentery.
Topical ointment: rind applied to eczema, skin infections, and wounds.
Astringent lotion: applied externally for skin conditions.
6-part decoction of bark and rind: used for infected wounds and ulcers.

Note: These traditional uses predate and are independent of modern scientific evidence. They represent historical ethnomedical practices, not clinically validated therapies.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Phytochemical Profile

Mangosteen contains phenolic acids, xanthones, prenylated benzophenone derivatives, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and condensed tannins. Furthermore, it has been hypothesized that the pericarp of the mangosteen is a rich source of oligomeric proanthocyanidins with B-type linkages.

The extracts of Garcinia mangostana (L) pericarp contain high concentrations of prenylated xanthones such as α-, β-, and γ-mangostin and related molecules. Mangosteen peels have a wide range of biologically active metabolites such as xanthones, isoflavones, tannins, flavonoids, procyanidin, benzophenones, and α-, β-, and γ-mangostin.

3.2 The Principal Mangostins

α-Mangostin: the main xanthone derivative contained in mangosteen pericarp (Garcinia mangostana), with pharmacological activities including antioxidant, antiproliferation, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties.
γ-Mangostin: γ-mangostin showed the most potent NO-inhibitory effects in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells among several xanthones tested. It is also associated with inhibition of cyclooxygenase and prostaglandin E2 synthesis.
β-Mangostin: present in the pericarp; studied less extensively than α- or γ-mangostin, but included in phytochemical analyses of the plant.
Gartanin, garcinone E, 8-deoxygartanin: among the most studied xanthones along with alpha-, beta-, and gamma-mangostins.

3.3 Established Mechanisms of Action

α-Mangostin and other xanthonoids, including β-mangostin and γ-mangostin, have various pharmacological advantages, namely neuroprotective, anti-proliferative, antinociceptive, antioxidant, pro-apoptotic, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic activities through multiple signaling mechanisms, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK 1/2), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-β1), and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK).

Anti-inflammatory mechanisms:

α-Mangostin compounds exhibit anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the production of nitrous oxide, TNF-α, and interleukin-8.
Mangosteen and its ingredients can downregulate cytokine expression such as TNF-α, MDA, SOD, IL-1β, IL-6, cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2).

Anticancer mechanisms:

Through an extensive analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies, α-mangostin's multifaceted mechanisms include cytotoxicity, apoptosis induction through both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways, and modulation of key cellular processes implicated in cancer progression. It causes mitochondrial dysfunction, activates caspases, and regulates autophagy, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and oxidative stress.
The ability of α-mangostin to inhibit cell proliferation, modulate cell cycle progression, and induce apoptosis is linked to its effects on key signaling pathways, including Akt, NF-κB, and p53.
α-Mangostin effectively inhibited cell viability, resulting in loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), release of cytochrome C, increase of Bax, decrease of Bcl-2, and activation of caspase-9/caspase-3 cascade in cancer cells. Alpha-mangostin elevated the contents of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to activate p38.

Antimicrobial mechanisms:

α-Mangostin is active against methicillin-sensitive and -resistant S. aureus strains (MICs = 1.57–12.5 µg/ml).
The results of a systematic review showed a reduction in microbial counts after the incorporation of α-mangostin, resulting in better disinfection and effectiveness against multiple microbes. The meta-analysis revealed no significant difference in effectiveness when α-mangostin was compared to commercially available antibiotics. α-Mangostin worked effectively against tested microbes and was shown to have inhibitory effects on microbes with antibiotic resistance.

Antioxidant mechanisms:

Mangosteen extracts and xanthones from mangosteen were reported to scavenge DPPH, ABTS, and peroxynitrite radicals.

Inhibition of fatty acid synthase:

α-Mangostin inhibits fatty acid synthase and HIV-1 protease (IC50s = 5.54 and 5.12 µM, respectively).

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Preclinical (in vitro/in vivo): The xanthones α- and γ-mangostin are major bioactive compounds found in mangosteen that are reported to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Researchers examined their efficacy to prevent lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammation in human macrophages (differentiated U937 cells) and cross-talk with primary cultures of newly differentiated human adipocytes, linking obesity-associated inflammation to macrophage recruitment into white adipose tissue.

Human/Clinical Evidence: Participants were randomly divided into placebo and mangosteen groups, with the same number of male and female participants in each group. The trial duration was 30 days. ORAC as an antioxidant biomarker was measured in both groups. After the 30-day trial, the group given the mangosteen-based drink formula showed 15% more antioxidant capacity in the bloodstream than did the placebo group. In the mangosteen group, between pre- and post-intervention, the C-reactive protein level significantly decreased by 46%, while no significant decrease was observed in the placebo group.

Evidence strength: Controlled intervention trials of the efficacy of xanthones in human volunteers, as well as characterization of the absorption, metabolism, and elimination of these compounds, remain quite limited. The potential toxicity of chronic ingestion of formulations containing mangosteen pericarp and its extracts has received minimal attention. Despite numerous health claims, there is insufficient scientific evidence at this time to support the use of mangosteen-containing supplements as enhancers of health and useful adjuvants for treatment of various pathophysiological illnesses.

4.2 Antioxidant Activity

Human/Clinical Evidence: One study investigated the absorption and antioxidant effects of a xanthone-rich mangosteen liquid in healthy human volunteers after the acute consumption of 59 mL of the supplement. The liquid contained mangosteen, aloe vera, green tea, and multivitamins. Results indicated that α-mangostin and vitamins B2 and B5 were bioavailable, with observed Cmax at tmax of around 1 hour. Antioxidant capacity measured by the ORAC assay was increased by a maximum effect of 18% after 2 hours, and the increased antioxidant level lasted at least 4 hours.

Limitation: The beverage tested contained multiple ingredients (mangosteen, aloe vera, green tea, multivitamins), making it impossible to attribute effects specifically to α-mangostin or other mangosteen xanthones alone.

4.3 Anticancer Activity

Preclinical Evidence: α-Mangostin, a xanthone derivative extracted from the pericarp of the mangosteen fruit, has garnered significant attention for its potential as a natural anti-cancer agent. A 2024 review provides a comprehensive analysis of the current literature on the anti-cancer properties of α-mangostin across various cancer types. Through an extensive analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies, the review elucidates the multifaceted mechanisms underlying α-mangostin's cytotoxicity, apoptosis induction through both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways, and modulation of key cellular processes implicated in cancer progression in a diverse array of cancer cells.

Studies have shown that mangosteen xanthones (α-mangostin, gartanin, etc.) inhibited the growth of breast, prostate and colon cancer, sarcoma, glioma, melanoma, and leukemia cell lines via cell cycle arrest and apoptosis induction. Molecular mechanisms of mangosteen xanthones' anti-cancer effects were involved in inhibition of AKT, MAPK, and NF-κB pathways.

Moreover, α-mangostin exhibits synergistic effects with conventional chemotherapeutic agents, suggesting its utility in combination therapies.

Human Clinical Evidence: Although currently there are no clinical studies, mangosteen products are marketed to cancer patients as anti-cancer agents. Despite consistently impressive preclinical findings across anticancer, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory research, almost no well-designed clinical trials have confirmed therapeutic benefits for any condition in humans.

Evidence strength: Entirely preclinical (cell lines and animal models). No published human clinical trials for any cancer indication exist as of the time of writing. Evidence should be characterized as preliminary.

4.4 Antimicrobial Activity

Preclinical/systematic review evidence: A systematic review aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of α-mangostin derived from Garcinia mangostana against different microbes, with a literature search performed using PubMed and ScienceDirect until March 2022. A total of 30 studies were included; they were heterogeneous in their study design and the risk of bias was moderate. The results showed a reduction in microbial counts after the incorporation of α-mangostin, resulting in better disinfection and effectiveness against multiple microbes. The meta-analysis revealed no significant difference in effectiveness when α-mangostin was compared to commercially available antibiotics. α-Mangostin worked effectively against tested microbes and was shown to have inhibitory effects on microbes with antibiotic resistance.

Evidence strength: The 30-study systematic review is promising but notes moderate risk of bias and heterogeneity. Nearly all underlying studies are in vitro (no human clinical trials in infectious disease).

4.5 Periodontal and Oral Health

Human Clinical Evidence: A study performed on 104 patients diagnosed with gingivitis or incipient periodontitis randomly allocated participants to either a test group with daily intake of a single capsule containing 194 mg of mangosteen and propolis extracted complex (MAEC) for eight weeks, or a control group receiving placebo. Clinical periodontal evaluation and immunological parameters from saliva and gingival sulcular fluid were assessed at baseline, four, and eight weeks. There was a significant difference in modified gingival index at four and eight weeks between the test and control groups. In the test group, crevicular interleukin-6 (IL-6) was reduced, and salivary matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 was increased after eight weeks.

A randomized clinical trial using local delivery of 4% mangostana gel into the periodontal pockets of chronic periodontitis patients showed significant improvement in periodontal parameters.

In a clinical trial on 25 people with gum disease, a gel with 4% mangosteen fruit reduced bleeding, plaque buildup, and the salivary count of one of the microbes responsible for the disease (Treponema denticola). Another mangosteen gel had similar effects when used as an add-on to periodontal treatment in another trial on 31 people. In another trial on 60 people with mild to moderate chronic gum disease, herbal mouthwash with mangosteen fruit reduced bleeding, plaque buildup, and bad breath. Although the results are promising, the evidence is limited to support the use of mangosteen in people with gum disease. Larger, more robust clinical trials are required to confirm its effectiveness.

Evidence strength: Multiple small randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with positive signals for periodontal outcomes. However, several studies used combined preparations (e.g., mangosteen plus propolis), preventing full attribution to mangostin alone. Sample sizes are small.

4.6 Metabolic Syndrome, Obesity, and Insulin Resistance

Preclinical evidence: Alpha-mangostin reduces tumor necrosis factor alpha in adipose tissue, which leads to amelioration of insulin sensitivity, a target for treating obesity and diabetes. A review concluded that mangosteen and its xanthones have a potential role in controlling and modifying metabolic syndrome and its related disorders, e.g., obesity, disrupted lipid profile, diabetes, and diabetes-related complications.

Mangosteen extract significantly improved insulin resistance, weight management, and inflammatory status in obese female patients with insulin resistance (Watanabe et al., 2018).

Human trial with combination product: In three clinical trials on 220 obese people, taking Meratrim (a combination product) together with a 2000 kcal diet and 30 minutes' walk per day caused participants to lose weight (3.74 kg after 8 weeks and 5.09 kg after 16 weeks) and waist circumference. Because all the trials tested mangosteen extract in combination with East Indian globe thistle, the specific contribution of mangosteen to the effects observed is difficult to estimate.

Evidence strength: Very limited human data; the combination product trials cannot isolate the effect of mangostin specifically. Further trials are needed.

4.7 Neurological Applications (Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Depression)

Preclinical evidence: Mangosteen pericarp-derived agents have shown multifunctional effects including neuroprotective, antioxidant, and anti-neuroinflammatory actions. They target specific disease pathologies, such as amyloid beta production and deposition as well as cholinergic dysfunction in AD; α-synuclein aggregation in PD; and modulation of monoamine disturbance in depression.

Limitations: α-MG and γ-MG show orally low bioavailability and poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration, which may reduce the efficacies of these compounds in brain disorders. Gaps remain in understanding the potential synergistic effects of these bioactives, their druggability properties, and clinical applicability. Further research, especially clinical trials, will be necessary to further move mangosteen and its derivatives into therapeutic applications.

Evidence strength: Entirely preclinical. No human clinical trials exist specifically for neurological indications.

4.8 Bone and Dental Health

Both in vitro and in vivo, alpha-mangostin was observed to inhibit osteoclast production and reduce bone resorption. These findings remain preclinical and have not been translated into human studies.

4.9 Cardiovascular and Cardioprotective Effects

Xanthones from mangosteen are highly biologically active, possess anti-inflammatory properties such as COX inhibition, and have cardiovascular protective effects. In a rat study, α-mangostin was able to attenuate lipid peroxidation and damage of the antioxidant defense system during injury-induced myocardial infarction. Human clinical data for cardiovascular applications are absent.

5. Body Systems Associated

Gastrointestinal system: historically used for diarrhea, dysentery, and gut infections; anti-inflammatory preclinical data.
Immune and inflammatory system: inhibition of NF-κB, COX-1/COX-2, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8; one human RCT showing CRP reduction.
Dermatological system: topical use for skin infections, wounds, eczema; some in vitro keratinocyte studies.
Oral/periodontal system: multiple small RCTs for gingivitis and periodontitis.
Oncological system: extensive in vitro and animal evidence for apoptosis induction; no human cancer trials.
Neurological system: preclinical neuroprotective activity, limited by poor BBB penetration.
Metabolic/endocrine system: preclinical antidiabetic and anti-obesity activity via AMPK; limited human data.
Cardiovascular system: preclinical cardioprotective and antioxidant data; no human trial data.
Musculoskeletal system: preclinical osteoclast inhibition data only.

6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Dosages reported in published scientific studies (not recommendations):

Oral capsule (periodontal trial): a single capsule containing 194 mg of mangosteen and propolis extracted complex (MAEC) daily for 8 weeks in a randomized controlled trial of 104 patients with gingivitis and incipient periodontitis.
Oral juice (acute bioavailability study): 59 mL of a xanthone-rich mangosteen liquid supplement in a single acute dose in healthy human volunteers.
Oral juice (8-week inflammation trial): the study included four groups, including placebo and three different doses of the test product, XanGo Juice: 3, 6, or 9 oz twice daily.
Topical gel (periodontal application): 4% mangostana gel administered as local drug delivery into the periodontal pockets of chronic periodontitis patients.
Oral supplement (diabetes adjuvant trial): 500 mg twice daily of mangosteen supplement alongside sitagliptin/metformin for a 12-week intervention period.
Animal study (weight/obesity): in a 9-week study in rats fed a high-calorie diet, the two groups treated with mangosteen extract (200 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg of body weight) demonstrated reduced weight gain compared to control groups.

No universally established clinical dose for any indication has been validated through phase II or III trials.

7. Pharmacokinetics and Bioavailability

Xanthones from mangosteen have limited oral bioavailability due to poor aqueous solubility, extensive first-pass metabolism, and rapid phase II conjugation (glucuronidation and sulfation) in the liver and intestine. Pharmacokinetic studies in rats demonstrated low systemic bioavailability of α-mangostin following oral dosing, with extensive metabolism to conjugated metabolites. A small human study with mangosteen juice detected α-mangostin and its phase II metabolites in plasma, confirming at least partial absorption.

Results indicated that α-mangostin was bioavailable, with observed Cmax at tmax of around 1 hour, and the increased antioxidant level lasted at least 4 hours.

α-MG and γ-MG show orally low bioavailability and poor BBB penetration, which may reduce the efficacies of these compounds in brain disorders. Interestingly, administration in the form of mangosteen pericarp extract or using novel delivery systems including nanotechnology has improved pharmacokinetic parameters of the single bioactive compound.

Naturally occurring compounds, including mangosteen xanthones, are often limited by their poor bioavailability for in vivo potency.

8. Safety Considerations and Notable Interactions

8.1 General Tolerability

When taken by mouth, mangosteen is possibly safe when taken for up to 12 weeks. It might cause constipation, bloating, nausea, vomiting, and tiredness.

After the 30-day consumption of a mangosteen-based beverage, there were no side effects on human hepatic and kidney functions, and the study showed no side effects on immune, hepatic, and renal functions for long-term consumption. However, this was a single 30-day trial and cannot be extrapolated to long-term safety with concentrated supplements.

While α-mangostin demonstrates a favorable safety profile with no apparent hepatotoxic effects at common dosages, interactions with certain medications may pose risks.

8.2 Lactic Acidosis Case Report

A case published in the American Journal of Kidney Diseases (Wong LP and Klemmer PJ, 2008) documented severe lactic acidosis associated with juice of the mangosteen fruit Garcinia mangostana, published in Am J Kidney Dis 2008;51:829–33. The lactic acidosis case report occurred in a patient with subsequent renal involvement. This is a single case report and does not establish causation at typical dietary doses; however, it has been cited as a basis for caution in patients with renal or metabolic disease.

8.3 Anticoagulant and Antiplatelet Drug Interactions

Theoretically, concomitant use of mangosteen with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs may increase the risk of bleeding. In vitro and animal research shows that γ-mangostin, a constituent of mangosteen, is a potent and competitive antagonist of the serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptor. Antagonism of the 5-HT2A receptor is believed to reduce platelet aggregation.

Although no adverse events were reported in human trials, the potential long-term toxicity of products containing mangosteen xanthones requires further assessment. The effect of mangosteen xanthones on cultured normal cells has not been fully addressed. Preliminary data suggest that primary and transformed human cells respond differently to α-MG, with the xanthone promoting the secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators by normal cells.

8.4 Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity

Researchers evaluated genotoxicity/mutagenicity of hydroethanolic mangosteen extract (HEGM, 10 to 640 µg/mL) in established test assays (Comet assay, micronucleus test, and Salmonella/microsome test). In the Comet assay, HEGM-exposed human leukocytes showed no DNA damage. No significant HEGM-induced mutation in TA98 and TA100 strains of Salmonella typhimurium (with or without metabolic activation) was observed, and HEGM-exposed human lymphocytes had no increase of micronuclei. However, HEGM suggested exposure concentration-dependent antigenotoxic potential.

8.5 Special Populations

Caution is warranted in liver disease, as hepatic metabolism of xanthone compounds in these populations has not been studied. For kidney disease, caution is advised given the lactic acidosis case report with subsequent renal involvement. Regarding surgery, there is a theoretical basis for discontinuing supplements at least 2 weeks before scheduled surgery due to theoretical antiplatelet effects suggested in preclinical studies.

8.6 Absence of Formal Interaction Data

Formal drug interaction studies for mangosteen in humans are essentially absent. The following potential interactions are based on preclinical research and theoretical pharmacological considerations. Patients on anticoagulant therapy should be made aware of the theoretical bleeding risk, as documented by the mechanism of 5-HT2A antagonism by γ-mangostin.

9. Overall Evidentiary Assessment

The mangostins—particularly α-mangostin—represent a chemically well-characterized family of xanthone polyphenols with a rich preclinical pharmacology. These extracts possess a wide range of biological properties including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, antioxidant, and pro-apoptotic activities. However, the translation of these findings to clinical practice remains at an early stage.

Despite consistently impressive preclinical findings across anticancer, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory research, almost no well-designed clinical trials have confirmed therapeutic benefits for any condition in humans. The highest-quality human evidence currently exists for periodontal applications, where several small RCTs—including a 104-patient multi-center trial—have demonstrated statistically significant improvements in gingival indices. For all other indications, evidence is limited to in vitro studies, animal models, or small/uncontrolled human studies.

Major research gaps include: formally characterized pharmacokinetics in human subjects; dose-ranging and dose-escalation studies; adequately powered phase II/III clinical trials for any indication; safety data for long-term use (beyond 12 weeks); and characterization of interactions with commonly used pharmaceutical agents.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Mangostin may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Mangostin may help support.

No body systems available.