Solanaceae

Other Names

nightshade familynightshade or potato familynightshadespotato familypotato or nightshade familytomato family

Synopsis

Solanaceae (Nightshade Family): A Comprehensive Encyclopedic Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Overview

Taxonomic Classification and Common Names

Solanaceae, commonly known as the nightshades, is a family of flowering plants in the order Solanales. The family is also informally referred to as the potato family or the nightshade family. The family contains approximately 2,700 species, several of which are used as agricultural crops, medicinal plants, and ornamental plants. The family is a medium-sized one with approximately 90 genera and 3,000–4,000 species, with estimates varying by authority. Originating in South America, Solanaceae now inhabit every continent on Earth except Antarctica.

This family thrives in a range of climates, with a significant concentration in Central and South America, but is found on nearly every continent. After the K–Pg extinction event they rapidly diversified and have adapted to live in deserts, tundras, rainforests, plains, and highlands, and have taken on a wide range of forms including trees, vines, shrubs, and epiphytes.

Subfamily Structure

Within the Solanaceae family, there are five subfamilies: Cestroideae, Nicotianoideae, Solanoideae, Petunioideae, and Schizanthoideae. Nearly 80% of all nightshades are included in the subfamily Solanoideae, most of which are members of the type genus Solanum.

Key Genera and Economically Important Species

Species of the family are used for food (e.g., the potato or the tomato), drugs (tobacco; deadly nightshade; mandrake; sources of commercial alkaloids) and as ornamentals (petunia; velvet tongue; or butterfly flower). The main genera with food and nutraceutical importance are Solanum, Capsicum, Physalis, and Lycium, which comprise several important cultivated crops (e.g., tomato, pepper, eggplant, tomatillo, and goji berry), as well as genera notable for species with several pharmaceutical properties (e.g., Datura, Nicotiana, Atropa, Mandragora, etc.).

Tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, peppers, huckleberries, groundcherries, and tomatillos are all members of the Solanaceae family and important sources of nutrition to humans and animals alike.

Morphological Characteristics

The family encompasses a wide variety of growth forms, including annuals, biennials, perennials, vines, shrubs, and trees. Members of this family are characterized by their leaves, which are usually entire and alternate. The flowers are typically bisexual or unisexual and radially symmetrical, with five sepals and petals. The fruit type varies among different genera, but most are berries or capsules.

Common Supplement Forms and Preparations

The Solanaceae family is considered one of the most important families among plant species because, on one hand it encompasses many staple food crops of the human diet while, on the other hand, it includes species rich in powerful secondary metabolites that could be valorized in medicine or drug formulation as well as nutraceuticals and food supplements.

Solanaceae-derived ingredients appear in commerce and supplementation in diverse forms, including: standardized root and leaf extracts (as in the case of Withania somnifera/ashwagandha), topical patch formulations (capsaicin), dry powdered plant material, tinctures, decoctions, alkaloid isolates, and as raw food or culinary produce. Until single compounds were isolated, whole plant or herbal preparations of these plants including extracts, ointments, or teas were used for medicinal applications.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Traditions

Nightshade plants (Solanaceae) have been utilized as hallucinogenic drugs since antiquity in nearly every culture. These plants have been used globally as poisons, hallucinogens, and anesthetic agents for a long time in both the New and Old Worlds, as their usage can be traced back to ancient Egypt in 1500 BC. Known since ancient times, mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) appears sculpted in various Egyptian tombs and its healing properties are mentioned in the Eber Papyrus (1500 BCE).

Mandrake's legendary history and mythology is found among Middle Eastern cuneiform writings dating back to the fourteenth century B.C. References to mandrake are also found in early Mesopotamian, Greek, Old Hebrew, Roman, Egyptian, Arabic, and other texts. Initially used as an amulet for good luck, as an aphrodisiac and to treat infertility, its use from the 1st century was as a sedative and anaesthetic in surgical procedures.

The Deadly Nightshade, Atropa belladonna, is a plant surrounded by myth, fear, and awe. In antiquity, the Greeks and the Romans knew that it contained a deadly poison. In medieval times, it was widely used by witches, sorcerers, and professional poisoners. Linnaeus later codified its remarkable properties as the genus Atropa, the Fate that slits the thin spun life, and the species belladonna because of its power to dilate the pupils. In the 1830s, the pure alkaloid l-atropine was isolated from the plant. This proved to be a significant tool in the study of the autonomic nervous system, leading to the identification of acetylcholine as an important neurotransmitter in mammals.

The Solanaceae alkaloids atropine and scopolamine were the active substances in the ointment of witches and medieval anesthetics, and in modern poisons.

Medieval European Use

During the Middle Ages, mandrake was Europe's most significant medicinal and magical plant, capable of curing practically everything, from infertility and insomnia, foretelling the future, to shielding a soldier in battle. Anticholinergic plants of the family Solanaceae have a long history of use as medicines, poisons, and recreational drugs. Though they were the intoxicating substances of choice throughout Europe for centuries, their use for these purposes has declined with the globalisation of other recreational drugs.

Ayurvedic and South Asian Traditions

Withania somnifera (WS) or ashwagandha is an adaptogenic plant used extensively in traditional medicines and as a food supplement. WS has been recommended for management of polyarthritis, lumbago, painful swellings, premature ejaculation, oligospermia, plague, asthma, vitiligo, general debility, impotency, ulcers, uterine infection, leucorrhoea, hemorrhoid, and orchitis in traditional Persian medicine. Folk healers used the plant to treat several diseases such as fever, cancer, asthma, diabetes, ulcer, hepatitis, eyesores, arthritis, heart problems, and hemorrhoids.

Relatives of mandrake have been used for medicinal purposes in many traditional cultures worldwide, from the sacred Datura of Ayurveda in India, to the medicinal and cosmetic Atropa belladonna of the Mediterranean, and the tree Datura (Brugmansia) of Amazonia.

Traditional Use in the Middle East

In a recent survey, 106 local healers in Israel were interviewed concerning the use of Solanaceae as medicinal plants. The main findings reveal that only four species (Lycium europeaum, Solanum nigrum, Hyoscyamus aureus, Hyoscyamus albus) are extensively used today; the use of some traditional plants has been almost abandoned (Datura spp., Mandragora autumnalis, Withania somnifera); today all the plants are applied externally, they are rarely used as narcotics; most use of these plants is local, and the extensive distribution of modern, safe narcotics, sedatives and anaesthetics has reduced the use of the Solanaceae for these purposes.

Indigenous and Cross-Cultural Uses

Indigenous peoples in South America, Africa, and Asia consume the leaves and berries of certain Solanaceae species. All plants are simple to cultivate and readily found in nature, highly potent, and, consequently, have a long history in traditional medicines from different cultures.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Overview of Alkaloid Classes

The Solanaceae family has served as a model for studying alkaloid evolution, due to the varied types of alkaloids it produces, such as nicotinoids, tropane alkaloids (TAs), steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs), and capsaicinoids. Alkaloids are a diverse class of nitrogen-containing metabolites involved in key biotic interactions, such as defense against herbivores and pathogens and the recruitment of pollinators. They are products of plants' secondary metabolism derived from amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, or terpenes.

Tropane Alkaloids

Secondary metabolites of Solanaceae plants, sharing a tropane skeleton as a common structural feature, are sharply divided into two classes: tropine and ecgonine derivatives. The first group, represented by well-known alkaloids atropine and scopolamine, which are considered to be model anticholinergic drugs, continues to provide inspiration in the search for more selective muscarinic receptor antagonists.

Chemically, the molecules of these compounds have a characteristic bicyclic structure and include atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine. Tropane alkaloids (TAs) are either esters of 3α-tropanole (tropine) or, to a lesser extent, 3β-tropanole (pseudotropine) and can be distinguished into three groups: TAs from Solanaceae plants like hyoscyamine and scopolamine, coca alkaloids like cocaine from Erythoxylum coca, and the recently discovered calystegines group, which are polyhydroxylated nortropane alkaloids mainly occurring in Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae, Moraceae, Erythrocylaceae, and Brassicaceae. In total, approximately 200 different TAs have been described.

TAs represent a big cluster of secondary metabolites, predominantly present in the Solanaceae family. Naturally occurring TAs include atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine, cocaine, and calystegine. The concentration of TAs in the plant is dependent on many biotic and abiotic factors.

Among the toxic members of this family are those containing the anticholinergic tropane alkaloids atropine/hyoscyamine (racemic forms of the same compound) and scopolamine, which are formed in the plants' roots before being distributed through the aerial parts.

TA biosynthesis begins with the amino acids ornithine or arginine and their intermediate putrescine, continuing to the common N-methyl-Δ¹-pyrrolinium cation precursor of all TAs.

Steroidal Glycoalkaloids (SGAs)

The solanaceous glycoalkaloids (SGAs) are naturally occurring steroids in potatoes and related plants that inhibit both acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. Solanine is a glycoalkaloid poison found in species of the nightshade family within the genus Solanum, such as the potato (Solanum tuberosum). It can occur naturally in any part of the plant, including the leaves, fruit, and tubers.

Capsaicinoids

Capsaicinoids are found in the fruits of some Capsicum species (chili peppers). Capsaicin is the primary active capsaicinoid and is responsible for the burning sensation associated with chili peppers. Capsaicin is a pungent ingredient of chili peppers and specifically activates transient receptor potential vanilloid subtype 1 (TRPV1), a Ca²⁺-permeable ion channel.

Nicotine and Pyrrolidines

Other classes of alkaloids found in Solanaceae include steroidal alkaloids and pyrrolidines (nicotine, cuscohygrine). A notable alkaloid derived from Solanaceae is nicotine, of the pyrrolidines class, which occurs naturally in the tobacco genus Nicotiana. Like the tropanes, it acts on cholinergic neurons, but with the opposite effect (it is an agonist as opposed to an antagonist). It has a higher specificity for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors than other ACh proteins.

Withanolides (Withania somnifera)

Withania somnifera is rich in numerous valued secondary metabolites such as steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, and glycosides. Withanolides possess anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, aphrodisiac, antibacterial, and anti-neurodegenerative properties.

Broader Phytochemical Profile

Studies on the genetic makeup and composition of bioactive compounds in Solanaceae have revealed them to be rich in steroidal alkaloids, saponins, terpenes, flavonoids, and phenolics. Triterpene and steroidal glycosides commonly referred to as saponins are another major group of phytoconstituents naturally occurring in plants belonging to Solanaceae.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Tropane Alkaloids: Anticholinergic Mechanisms

Pharmacologically, tropane alkaloids are the most powerful known anticholinergics in existence, meaning they inhibit the neurological signals transmitted by the endogenous neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Atropine has a stimulant effect on the central nervous system and heart, whereas scopolamine has a sedative effect. Scopolamine is used as an antiemetic against motion sickness or for people receiving chemotherapy.

The contemporary pharmaceutical industry manufactures over 20 active pharmaceutical substances containing the tropane moiety in their structure, which are applied as mydriatics, antiemetics, antispasmodics, anesthetics, and bronchodilators.

Calystegines, on the other hand, are not absorbed into the central nervous system (CNS) due to their hydrophilicity and consequently exhibit no psychoactive effects in humans.

Capsaicin: TRPV1 Activation and Nociceptor Defunctionalization

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) is a non-selective cation channel, predominantly expressed in a subset of peripheral sensory neurons for pain signaling. Topical application of agonist capsaicin for desensitizing TRPV1 currents has been approved for relief of chronic pain.

The mechanism of action of topical capsaicin has been ascribed to depletion of substance P. However, experimental and clinical studies show that depletion of substance P from nociceptors is only a correlate of capsaicin treatment and has little, if any, causative role in pain relief. Rather, topical capsaicin acts in the skin to attenuate cutaneous hypersensitivity and reduce pain by a process best described as 'defunctionalization' of nociceptor fibres. Defunctionalization is due to a number of effects that include temporary loss of membrane potential, inability to transport neurotrophic factors leading to altered phenotype, and reversible retraction of epidermal and dermal nerve fibre terminals.

Glycoalkaloids: Cholinesterase Inhibition and Membrane Disruption

There are several proposed mechanisms of how solanine causes toxicity in humans, but the true mechanism of action is not well understood. Solanum glycoalkaloids have been shown to inhibit cholinesterase, disrupt cell membranes, and cause birth defects. One study suggests that the toxic mechanism of solanine is caused by the chemical's interaction with mitochondrial membranes. Experiments show that solanine exposure opens the mitochondrial permeability transition pores of the inner mitochondrial membrane, decreasing the membrane potential. The opening of these pores leads to Ca²⁺ being transported from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm, and this increased concentration of Ca²⁺ in the cytoplasm triggers cell damage and apoptosis.

Withanolides: Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis Modulation

The ability of ashwagandha to modulate the hypothalamus-pituitary axis and brain neurotransmitters has resulted in clinical findings related to reducing stress and anxiety, improving mood, and improving sleep quality. Ashwagandha's stress-relieving effects may occur via its moderating effect on the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Pain Relief: Capsaicin (Topical)

Topical capsaicin is an FDA-approved treatment for neuropathic pain. The strongest clinical evidence within Solanaceae relates to capsaicin's application in neuropathic pain conditions.

Two similarly designed randomized, double-blind, multicentre trials (C116 and C117) evaluated the efficacy of the capsaicin 8% patch in post-herpetic neuralgia patients. Capsaicin 8% w/w or control (capsaicin 0.04% w/w) patches were applied once for 60 minutes to the painful areas and patients were followed for 12 weeks. Mean baseline NPRS scores per group ranged from 5.7 to 6.0.

Topical capsaicin relieves self-reported pain ratings by >30% for approximately three months in approximately 40–45% of postherpetic neuralgia patients. Topical capsaicin not only attenuates pain aversion but is also reported to attenuate mechanical hyperalgesia in patients with peripheral neuropathy from multiple etiologies.

High-dose capsaicin patches are already in clinical use in patients with chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain. Site-specific resiniferatoxin (an ultrapotent capsaicin analog) injections are currently undergoing clinical trials in patients with chronic intractable cancer pain caused by metastatic bone disease.

Evidence strength: Moderate-to-strong for approved topical indications (post-herpetic neuralgia, peripheral neuropathic pain), based on randomized controlled trials and regulatory approval. Common side effects of even topical capsaicin include skin irritation, swelling, erythema, and pruritus.

5.2 Stress and Anxiety: Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha)

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is an adaptogenic herb used to prevent and treat psychosomatic disorders. A systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effects and safety of ashwagandha on psychosomatic functions related to stress and anxiety among patients. Nine randomized controlled trials involving 558 patients were eligible. The findings of the meta-analysis showed a significant effect of ashwagandha formulations on the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (MD = −4.72, 95% CI = [−8.45 to −0.99]).

A dose-ranging randomized controlled trial specifically examined the stress-reducing effects of a standardized root and leaf aqueous extract: the standardized Withania somnifera leaves and root extract (Sensoril®) at three different doses (125 mg, 250 mg, and 500 mg) safely and effectively reduced stress, anxiety, and depression in chronically stressed subjects after an 8-week intervention. Specifically, this WS extract dose-dependently and significantly attenuated stress, as assessed by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), and reduced levels of well-known biomarkers related to stress, such as plasma cortisol, ACTH, and salivary α-amylase. Moreover, the extract also improved sleep, vitality, and quality-of-life parameters in these subjects.

A separate randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study used a different dosage form: sixty adults were randomly allocated to take either a placebo or 240 mg of a standardized ashwagandha extract (Shoden) once daily. Outcomes were measured using the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21), and hormonal changes in cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate (DHEA-S), and testosterone. All participants completed the trial with no adverse events reported.

WS root and leaf extracts exhibited noteworthy anti-stress and anti-anxiety activity in animal and human studies. WS also improved symptoms of depression and insomnia, though fewer studies investigated these applications.

WS supplementation decreases cortisol secretion with no significant adverse effects. Nonetheless, none of the studies evaluated the potential impact of cortisol reduction on adrenal function and long-term effects. Brief-term supplementation with WS appears to have a stress-reducing effect in stressed individuals.

Evidence strength: Moderate. Multiple small-to-medium RCTs and one meta-analysis support stress and anxiety reduction, with consistent effects on cortisol. Limitations include small sample sizes, study heterogeneity in formulations and dosages, and largely short-term follow-up. While W. somnifera extracts yielded promising results, further research with larger sample sizes is needed to confirm its effects on anxiety and insomnia.

5.3 Muscle Strength and Physical Performance

In an 8-week, randomized, prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study, 57 young male subjects (18–50 years old) with little experience in resistance training were randomized into treatment (29 subjects) and placebo (28 subjects) groups. Subjects in the treatment group consumed 300 mg of ashwagandha root extract twice daily, while the control group consumed starch placebos. Following baseline measurements, both groups of subjects underwent resistance training for 8 weeks and measurements were repeated at the end of week 8. The primary efficacy measure was muscle strength, and the secondary efficacy measures were muscle size, body composition, serum testosterone levels, and muscle recovery.

Compared to the placebo subjects, the group treated with ashwagandha had significantly greater increases in muscle strength on the bench-press exercise (Placebo: 26.4 kg vs. Ashwagandha: 46.0 kg; p = 0.001) and the leg-extension exercise (Placebo: 9.8 kg vs. Ashwagandha: 14.5 kg; p = 0.04), and significantly greater muscle size increase at the arms (p = 0.01) and chest (p < 0.001).

Evidence strength: Preliminary-to-moderate. Results from individual RCTs are encouraging, but further replication in larger and more diverse populations is needed.

5.4 Cognitive Function

Results from a clinical study suggest that Withania somnifera extract can improve cognitive and psychomotor performance and may, therefore, be a valuable adjunct in the treatment of diseases associated with cognitive impairment. Of great interest is W. somnifera's potential beneficial effect against neurodegenerative diseases, since the authorized medicinal treatments can only delay disease progression and provide symptomatic relief and are not without side effects.

Evidence strength: Preliminary. Most data are from small clinical studies or preclinical investigations. Larger, more definitive trials are needed.

5.5 Male Reproductive Health

WS was found to improve reproductive system function in multiple ways. WS extract decreased infertility among male subjects, due to the enhancement in semen quality, which is proposed to be due to enhanced enzymatic activity in seminal plasma and decreased oxidative stress.

Different parts of the plant have also been evaluated for clinical trials related to male infertility, obsessive-compulsive disorder, antianxiety, bone and muscle strengthening potential, hypolipidemic, and antidiabetic effects.

Evidence strength: Preliminary. Evidence primarily from small clinical studies; larger, well-powered trials are lacking.

5.6 Anti-Inflammatory Activity and Joint Pain

Anatabine is a Solanaceae plant family alkaloid marketed in the United States as a dietary supplement. It has demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects in vivo and in vitro, and may be useful for musculoskeletal aches and pains.

An internet-based survey study examined anatabine use for joint conditions: of the 282 survey respondents, 232 (82%) reported a benefit from anatabine supplementation for one or more joint pain conditions, most commonly the knee, wrists/hands/fingers, shoulder, and back. Mean scores of joint pain and stiffness were significantly (P < 0.0001) reduced after starting anatabine supplementation. Around 90% of all individuals rated the effect of anatabine supplementation as good or excellent for joint pain, stiffness, functionality, and overall overall effects.

Evidence strength: Weak. The joint pain data for anatabine is derived exclusively from a self-reported internet survey, which is subject to substantial bias; no controlled clinical trials have been conducted to date.

Investigation into Solanum species has revealed them to exhibit a wide range of pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, nephroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-ulcerogenic effects. However, the bulk of this evidence remains preclinical (animal and in vitro).

5.7 Anticancer Investigation (Preclinical)

The Solanaceae family, having a rich abundance of bioactive compounds with varying degrees of pharmacological activities, holds significant promise in the management of different diseases. Several steroidal glycoalkaloids and withanolide compounds from Solanaceae genera have been investigated for anticancer properties in laboratory settings.

Solanum nigrum (black nightshade; S. nigrum) has been endowed with a heterogeneous array of secondary metabolites, of which the steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) and steroidal saponins (SS) have vast potential to serve as anticancer agents. Since there has been much controversy regarding the safety of use of glycoalkaloids as anticancer agents, this area has remained more or less unexplored.

Evidence strength: Very preliminary. Virtually all anticancer data for Solanaceae-derived compounds (other than those already in pharmaceutical development) is at the in vitro or animal stage. No human clinical trials establishing anticancer efficacy of Solanaceae dietary supplements have been reported in peer-reviewed literature.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Solanaceae

Nervous system: Tropane alkaloids (atropine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine) act on muscarinic cholinergic receptors; nicotine acts on nicotinic receptors. Clinical use of scopolamine for motion sickness and atropine as a mydriatic and antispasmodic. Hyoscyamine and scopolamine are still utilized to treat neuromuscular disorders such as Parkinson's disease or used as anesthetics and analgesics, and antidotes to nerve agents, and are listed in the Model Lists of Essential Medicines by the World Health Organization.
Pain and musculoskeletal system: Capsaicin from Capsicum species is FDA-approved for topical neuropathic pain; ashwagandha has shown preliminary RCT evidence for muscle strength improvement.
Endocrine and stress-response systems: Ashwagandha/withanolides modulate the HPA axis; multiple RCTs demonstrate cortisol reduction in chronically stressed adults.
Reproductive system: Ashwagandha preliminary evidence for semen quality and male fertility improvement.
Immune system: Withanolides possess immunomodulatory properties.
Gastrointestinal system: Solanine and related glycoalkaloids affect GI tract membranes; scopolamine has been applied to GI motility disorders.
Cardiovascular system: Atropine is used clinically in cardiac emergencies to accelerate heart rate. Glycoalkaloids have been shown to possess cardiomodulatory activity in preclinical studies.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages from Studies

Because Solanaceae is a family rather than a single ingredient, dosages differ substantially by species and constituent. The following reflect dosages reported in clinical or survey research:

Capsaicin (topical, 8% patch): Patches were applied once for 60 minutes to the painful areas in randomized controlled trials for post-herpetic neuralgia.
Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) extract — stress/anxiety: An 8-week, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study compared three different WS extract doses (125, 250, and 500 mg) in adults with self-reported high stress. A separate placebo-controlled study used 240 mg of a standardized ashwagandha extract (Shoden) once daily.
Ashwagandha (root extract) — muscle strength: Subjects in the treatment group consumed 300 mg of ashwagandha root extract twice daily for 8 weeks.
Ashwagandha pharmacokinetics study: A randomized, double-blind, single-dose crossover study of 16 healthy human volunteers evaluated the acute oral bioavailability of withanolides. WS-35 was standardized to total withanolides not less than 40% comprising not less than 35% withanolide glycosides; WS-2.5 was standardized to 2.5% withanolides.

Among the various ashwagandha extracts available on the market, the standardization of actives, analytical methodologies, plant parts used, manufacturing methods, and recommended dosages vary considerably. These variables can potentially impact absorption characteristics and related therapeutic efficacy.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

Glycoalkaloid Toxicity (Solanine and Related Compounds)

It was suggested that doses of 2–5 mg/kg of body weight can cause toxic symptoms, and doses of 3–6 mg/kg of body weight can be fatal. Solanine is toxic to humans at certain doses, causing symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and potentially leading to death. Symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, stomach cramps, burning of the throat, cardiac dysrhythmia, nightmare, headache, and dizziness, as well as hallucinations, loss of sensation, paralysis, fever, jaundice, dilated pupils, hypothermia, and death in more severe cases.

Glycoalkaloids are not toxic in vivo if plants of the family Solanaceae grown under standard conditions and usually containing ≤100 mg/kg of GAs are used in food. However, some factors (growth conditions, harvesting methods, processing methods) can cause the GA content to increase to toxic levels. Solanine is a toxic glycoalkaloid known to accumulate under certain conditions in potato plant, sprouts, and tuber in levels which, if ingested, may cause poisoning in humans and farm animals.

Tropane Alkaloid Toxicity

Symptoms of tropane alkaloid overdose may include dry mouth, dilated pupils, ataxia, urinary retention, hallucinations, convulsions, coma, and death. Accidental contamination of cereals by Solanaceae family plants (seeds/berries) is common during harvesting and results in tropane alkaloid toxicity, both in food and feed. To avoid cross-contamination, good agricultural and collection practices emphasized by the WHO should be strictly followed.

Potential Drug Interactions: Glycoalkaloids and Cardiovascular Drugs

Solanaceae glycoalkaloids (SGAs) possess cardiomodulatory activity, and one study specifically investigated the potential interaction between verapamil and glycoalkaloids. Verapamil, α-solanine, and α-chaconine showed cardioinhibitory activity. When the glycoalkaloids were applied simultaneously with verapamil, an antagonistic effect was observed with a decrease in the maximal inhibitory effect and prolongation of recovery time. The results show that attention to the composition of the daily diet during therapy with various drugs is particularly important. Whether this interaction decreases the efficiency of cardiovascular therapy with verapamil in humans requires further investigation.

Cholinesterase Inhibition Interactions

Solanum glycoalkaloids can inhibit cholinesterase, disrupt cell membranes, and can be teratogenic. The cholinesterase-inhibiting property of SGAs is a concern in any clinical context involving anesthetics or neuromuscular-blocking agents that depend on cholinesterase activity, including succinylcholine.

Teratogenic Potential

Solanum glycoalkaloids have been shown to inhibit cholinesterase, disrupt cell membranes, and cause birth defects. This preclinical data warrants caution in pregnancy, although the relevant doses in food are generally well below the established thresholds for toxicity.

Ashwagandha-Specific Safety

Brief-term supplementation with Withania somnifera appears to have a stress-reducing effect in stressed individuals. However, since the long-term effects of WS supplementation are not yet fully understood, WS supplements should be used under medical supervision.

Evidence Gaps in Safety

Although rich in alkaloids of medical importance, Solanaceae plants contain alkaloids with toxicity to humans and animals, ranging from mild irritation to fatal outcomes. Across the Solanaceae family as a whole, the safety profile is heterogeneous and strongly dependent on species, plant part, extraction method, dose, and preparation. The edible members of the family (tomato, potato, pepper) have well-established food safety records under normal consumption conditions, while the toxic members (belladonna, datura, mandrake) carry serious risks at any dose outside of tightly controlled pharmaceutical settings.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Solanaceae may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Solanaceae may help support.

No body systems available.